Nursing Shortage In America

This paper examines the issue of nursing shortage in the light of the report published by the American Association Of   Colleges of Nursing on the subject . This report examines the issue in detail citing various reasons and issues concerning the problem . A brief overview of the report and further supportive facts are as under : Issue of Nursing Shortage: Ever since Florence Nightingale revolutionized nursing practices, nursing has been playing a pivotal role in the delivery of health care. This has been due to the ever increasing demand made upon the health profession in all stages of its delivery. With increasing population and the plethora of diseases to combat, hospitals around the world are facing a lot of problems, nursing shortage being one of them. According to a report published by the American Association of colleges of nursing it has been cited that recent researches have pointed out that an acute shortage of nurses is being observed in the different states across America. It is projected that by the year 2024 the shortage would increase by 340,000 as compared to the current shortage of 118,000 nurses. The reasons for this shortage are the short term policies which have been formulated in this respect (AACN, 2007). Influencing Factors : Though a lot of factors are contributing towards the shortage of nurses , however the five main areas which need special emphasis in this regard include: 1)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Training 2)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Poor job environment 3)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Increased patient turnover 4)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   High nurse turnover and vacancy rates 5)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Slow rate of growth of nurses A lot of attention has been given to producing medical doctors, very less attention has been given to the training of nurses. The other reasons cited in the report are the poor job environment, increased burden of patients, lower turnout. These factors are constantly challenging the health professionals. This is having an adverse impact on patient care. With the time slot available for each patient the level of nursing care has decreased a lot since the past few years. The increased frequency of errors being reported is also a result of these shortages. Other Studies: Besides the fact sheet which has been prepared by the American Association of colleges of nursing , a lot of studies have been carried out on this subject. Due to paucity of space a few of them are being presented for review: In an article published in readers digest in 2003, by John Prekannan has very rightly pointed out that if significant attention is not paid to the currently dwindling nursing population might adversely affect patient care. The increasing family pressure on nurses and their failure to tend to every case was cited as among the reason for a higher mortality rate. Another important point which has been made is the aloof attitude the patients experience from the nurses involved in their care. As compared to yester years when patients were received warmly by the nursing staff the present day health care is a constant reminder of the toll inadequate staffing may take on the already overburdened nurses (John Prekannan, 2003). In another research project which has taken a look over the reasons for this shortage has brought four main points in the lime light viz ageing workforce, declining enrolment, changing work climate and poor image of nursing (Goodin 2003). The answer to all these problems lies in formulating policies to combat this dearth of nursing professionals. Adequate resourcing and financing is the key when it comes to training programs. The grants which are being offered for the revival of nursing industry are not the only means of a revival but to change and bring about a powerful image of the nurses and to glamorize the profession is the key (Chandra , 2005)   . Solution : The focus needs to change from producing just doctors to the production of quality nurses so that the new trends and advancements which are taking place every now and then in the medical filed can be put into practical use by the sufficiently qualified nursing staff. Nursing programmes should be devised so that nurses may have a chance to develop and groom themselves according to the needs of the modern society. References American Association of Colleges of Nursing, Nursing Shortage Fact Sheet, Published 2007 John Pekkanen, Nursing shortage is America’s biggest health care crises, Article published in Reders Digest, September 2003 Janiszewski Goodin HGoodin , The Nursing Shortage in The United States Of America-an integrative review of literature, Published din Journal of advanced nursing, Volume 43 , Number 4 , August 2003. Chandra, Ashish, Willis, William K Importing Nurses: Combating the nursing shortage in America Copy right 2005 Heldref Publications   

Stalin: man or monster?

Source A is very different to sources B and C. Stalin is shown standing by pyramids ‘visit Russia's pyramids'. The picture is symbolising the results of Stalin's policies in which many people died. Stalin is showing no emotion. Sources B and C are very similar in that they are both showing Stalin as a popular, liked man. In source B it shows him with some of the workers on a hydro-electric power station. Stalin looks very relaxed and casual standing with his hand in one pocket and holding his pipe. However, the painting is an official soviet painting so it was probably manipulated to make Stain look good with happy workers. Source C was taken by a soviet photographer so the picture was probably planned on purpose to show Stalin's popularity and to make it look like all the people adore him. Sources B and C give very similar impressions of Stalin, showing him as a loved man. Whereas source A gives the impression that he is a monster. Source D is a speech written by a writer to the congress of soviets in 1935. The speech was published in Pravda, the paper of the communist party. The fact that it was published in Russia in 1935 already tells us that this source has probably been manipulated in some way to make Stalin look better. The only reason people would lie about him is because they were terrified of him so they had no choice but to suck up to him or face execution. This article does show us how Stalin had many people terrified and you can see this in the source because of how fake and obsessed the writer is. However because of the purges most of the stuff written about him was propaganda. Therefore meaning the information is of little use as it is purely either opinion or fake. I believe that the fact Bukharin's speech is written after becoming a victim of the purges and the fact it's written in Paris, where he is out of Stalin's control makes his assessment more reliable. The writer expresses his anger and hatred towards Stalin. Yet I think the reason Bukharin's assessment is reliable is the fact that he was very close to Stalin in helping him against Trotsky. Nonetheless he then fell into disagreement with him and he became a victim of the purges, but managed to escape to Paris, in exile out of Stalin's reach, meaning he can not be caught and punished. Khrushchev's speech is talking about how distrustful and truthfully scared Stalin was. This assessment does match others in saying how terrorising and malicious Stalin could be. For instance, the purges were an example of how Stalin would block any threats and oppositions by destroying them. Furthermore the fact that the speech was delivered in 1956 after Stalin's reign also makes the speech more likely to be accurate and trustworthy. Source G is showing Stalin as the judge prosecuting 4 defendants. They are all sarcastically admitting what they have done as they know even if they plea ‘not guilty' they will still be sentenced. The fact they will be sentence no matter what is shown in the background of the picture where you can see the gallows. Source H shows Stalin in the court, but in every position or role. This illustrates how Stalin manipulated everyone in the soviet party. Stalin was in effect, the Judge, the Jury, the Witness, the Clerk and the prosecutor. They were called ‘show trials' for a reason, that they were for show. The defendant was already a ‘dead man' before he had entered the court. The trial was purely so Stalin could say, ‘I gave them a chance'. Both sources are very similar in that they both give the same message, that Stalin was always in charge and that there would always be the same outcome in the verdict. Source I is from a biography of Stalin published in 1947 in Russia. This shows that what was written was probably fake or inaccurate as it was during the purges, meaning that the author had the fear of execution. Source J on the other hand was written in 1974 in Britain long after Stalin's rule. This means what is said about him is more likely to be true as there would be no fear of being prosecuted. Also the cold war was going on in 1974 so Britain was fighting against Russia. Yet I believe this could mean that the assessment is exaggerated because of Britain's dislike towards Russia at the time. Although we know they both disagree about Stalin we deduce this because of when and where they were written and our knowledge of what would happen to people who spoke out about Stalin. Most of the evidence shown in the sources points to Stalin as being a monster. After studying and analysing sources, A, D, E, F, G, H, and J, they all show or explain how evil, malicious and cruel Stalin was. It is only sources, B, C, D and I, which are either praising or supporting him and this is only because the artists or writers are either terrified or their assessments have been manipulated in some way from fear of execution. Different sources of information I have read indicate that Stalin was a monster For instance, to start with Stalin stated his 5 year plans. They consisted of different aims: to provide machinery and other equipment to farmers, to catch up with the western world so they were less dependant on industrial goods from other countries and finally to produce more armaments so that Russia could defend itself from attack. Although these aims sounded good they never actually happened. Stalin then introduced the purges. This was simply to a way to get rid of any opposition or threats. Stalin would find someone that had been opposing him in someway (even if it was that they spoke better than he did). He would then have them put on trial (know as show trails) and they would be found guilty and executed, hence out of Stalin's way. The Purges claimed over 10 million people's lives. Collectivisation was introduced for people in each village to join their farms together to make one large collective farm (Kolkhoz). Every one as a whole would then be able to afford the machinery and be more efficient. Because no-one listened there was a famine so Stalin made collectivisation compulsory. Peasants hated the idea so killed all their livestock and burned all their crops. Those who had done what Stalin said proved that collectivisation had worked and that numbers in cows and grain had gone up approximately 10 million in 25 years, but it is debateable whether this was a huge success, to the extent that many lives were ruined and many livestock and crops destroyed. Stalin had many people employed to work on building dams and bridges. However, many of the workers were slaves and kulaks. Strikers were shot, and wreckers could be executed or imprisoned. Thousands died from accidents, starvation or weather. Housing and wages were terrible; they would have to do a certain amount of work in their shift or they would go without food. Stalin's 5 year plans also came into this, he would often set an aim to complete a dam in 1 year, then when it was finished he would congratulate the workers and say ‘as you did so well, you have two more dams to do in the same amount of time'. This would then continue on and on. On the other hand, it could be argued that there were things that Stalin did during his reign that did benefit Russia. During the war Stalin helped by co-ordinating the arms production and making sure everyone was fully equipped. He was also very good at bringing everyone together and motivating people to fight for their country. Although collectivisation was not a huge success it did increase some of the numbers of livestock and grain farmers were producing, which arguably means that the idea did work. He did also have some other achievements, such as: Turkestan-Siberian railroad, the Dneiper dam and the Belomor canal. Some of the sources do support Stalin and show him as an adored man. Even though we have been looking at how most of the assessments are likely to of been manipulated, Stalin would have had some followers that were with him and supported him when some of the pictures were taken. Throughout Stalin's reign there were many things that he did that were horrific and malicious that did make him a real monster and from the research that I have collected I believe him to be just that, yet there were some things that he did for Russia that were in his favour, the main one being that he did, at a heavy cost, bring Russia foreword along way, and that did make his seem like a real man.

Internet Personal Security Is Not Absolute Essay

Internet is the most trending and most widely used in today’s generation, either it is used for communication, used for sharing files and documents, for making new acquaintances, or just for own enjoyment. People can also use the internet when they want to socialize with others, when they want to share what’s on their mind and the on goings of their lives, when they want to know what the trending topics like news and scandals, or when they want to post some pranks or scum other people. Internet usability can either be a great help to everyone or it can impose a threat to someone or somebody. People think that when they post something online, whether it is good, bad, privately, or publicly, that information is safely sealed and secured. But the truth is, it can be freely access or easily steal from them. Hacking, viruses, trojans, and especially own self are some of the reasons that threaten internet security. Among all of these examples, hacking is on the top list. Even though there are some laws against hacking like the Republic Act No. 10175, also known as the Cybercrime Prevention Act of 2012, it is not enough assurance to protect the people against hackers and it doesn’t improve the internet security. Changes need to be made in the law to increase internet security, and find and punish cyber criminals. Additional laws to stop cybercriminals and necessary, unenforceable, and could infringe upon interest users rights to privacy and the growth of the internet. The issue here is that the internet security is not that secured for users or for people to rely upon. People can hide their files thoroughly or limit the number of people who can access his or her private account but sooner or later that information will be publish and revealed publicly with or without his or her approval. There are different explanations on why this information once hidden and now visible seen by many people, but the most common reason is that â€Å"your file/ information is being hacked†, it can be an expert hacker or you have been chosen for someone’s prank or hobby. In strict definition of â€Å"hacker†, according to Rouse, M. (October, 2006): â€Å"Hacker is a term for â€Å"a clever programmer† who wanted to break into someone’s computer systems. These are people who enjoy learning details of programming language or system. They want to further their knowledge and skills in a particular computer language. Typically, the hacker is either proficient programmer or engineer with technical knowledge on the weakness and vulnerability of the computer system. (Rouse, M. (October, 2006). Definition: hacker. Search Security. Retrieved on January 23, 2013 from http://searchsecurity.techtarget.com/definition/hacker).† Like the given definition, because of the hacker’s hobby of exploring and gaining more knowledge on his preferred programming language, he will not give a care on whose account he is butchering, as long as he increases his understanding and skills on his chosen subject. He will not consider if it is personally- owned or government-owned accounts, as long as it interests him, he will do anything on his power to hack that website. Like for example the issue of hacking some government and civil society websites in the Philippines. According to Kabiling, G. D. (October 2, 2012): â€Å"The Anonymous Philippines (as what the hackers describe theirselves) hacked different government and civil society websites, namely: Police Community Relations Group (PCRG) of the Philippine National Police (PNP), Maritime Industry Authority (Marina), Intellectual Property Office (IPO), and Department of the Interior and Local Government (DILG). The reason for their attacked is to voice out their pr otest and opinions on implementing the Cybercrime Prevention Act of 2012. (Kabiling, G. D. (October 2, 2012). More Gov’t Websites Hacked: Cybercrime law in effect starting Wednesday. Manila Bulletin Publishing Corporation. Retrieved on January 24, 2013 from http://www.mb.com.ph/articles/375681/more-gov-t-websites-hacked#.UQGDCScUuBw).† There is also a hacking issue on American banks, which according to Staff, R. (September 20, 2012): â€Å"The hacking of websites and corporate networks at Bank of America, JP Morgan Chase & Co and Citigroup began in late 2011 and escalated this year. According to one of their sources, the attacks were in response to U.S. sanctions on Iranian banks.† The two issues are both similar and different. It is similar because they reported about different hacker’s interfere someone’s computer system. Different because on the first issue, hacking the government websites, the hackers introduced their group and post the reason why they block the websites and on the second issue, the hacker denied their involvement even though many evidences are pointing towards them. Hacking is the most dangerous hobby. Even though the Philippine government implemented the Cybercrime Prevention Act of 2012, it cannot give assurance on protecting the people. The Philippine government must change this law and focus more on the most problematic cybercrime issues. Government must strengthen the internet security in order to lessen the attacks of the hackers to the innocent people who freely use the internet. And in order to accomplish the changes they must first know why the internet security is absolute? Who are the people affected and can use the internet security? How someone knows if the internet security they use can either be helpful or can trigger harm to them?

Technology and the Communication Process Research Paper

Technology and the Communication Process - Research Paper Example To gather information and review theories regarding communication processes, different academic websites, journals and books have been utilized to support arguments. How Communication Processes are influenced by the Use of Technology World has transformed into a global village, thanks to the arrival of a number of technological developments. These technological developments has enabled person sitting at one corner of the world to communicate with another person sitting at the opposite corner of the world. All of this is possible just because of gadgets, computers, internet and efforts to close the gap between people living on earth. It can be argued that in today’s era, all communication processes are based on technology, with the exception of face to face communication or speech based communication. From the beginning of the human race on earth, human has strived to develop methods and technologies that help them to keep a record of their imagination and thought processes. Fi rst, we used to have stone tablets which were replaced with the advent of the printing press and then with the emergence of computers. Thus, the communication processes adopted by the human race has been changed from time to time (Cuel & Ferrario, 2007). Before going into further detail, it is important to understand the communication process. ... The second step was the message which was named as intended message design which clarified the audience that it actually includes the purpose, language and priorities included as content in the message. The third step in Shannon and Weaver’s communication model was channel which was named as a medium of communication by Berlo. The last and fourth step was receiving of message at the receiver’s end which heavily depends upon the perception of the receiver. Here, the impact of technology on communication processes would be discussed with respect to an individual’s personal and professional life. First of all it need to be understood that communication carried out with the use of technology is referred to as mediated communication. If you are using a cell phone to send a message, it is mediated communication. If you are sending an email to communicate, it is mediated communication. Even if you are delivering your intended message through television to mass audiences , it is also called mediated communication. In our personal lives, we get engaged in communication processes for almost 18 hours of the day. If it was the 18th century, then a person who is engaged for 18 hours in communicating with people would go mad due to lack of facilitating gadgets available (Tomei, 2007). Imagine women of 18th century sitting in Europe wanted to send her beloved husband her picture to ease of his nerves during the tiring war that he is engaged in Caribbean. It would take a month or a couple of months for the picture to reach at desired destination as it will be carried through sea-route. At that time, people used sketches to make such communications and write a number of pages to express their feelings. Then came the

Discuss the presence of islamic banking in Palestine Essay - 1

Discuss the presence of islamic banking in Palestine - Essay Example g products as per the needs of the targeted population, investors in Palestine sought to address the need of having a banking system that would be in line with Islamic laws and practices. The main that the Islamic law prohibits is that of money accruing interest, which is factor that dates back to the time of Prophet Muhammad (El Tiby 2010, p. 7). The interest for Palestine to start Islamic banks began in 1990 when businessmen started to push for the idea. This process began by the Muslim businessmen establishing a Finance Company that was to operate on Islamic principles, because the Israeli authorities had refused to oblige to this request. The company was named the Beit Elmal Al Philisti that was licensed for operation on 22 February 1994. Presently, banks in Palestine are classified as either conventional or Islamic banks with 83 % being the percentage of the conventional banks while the rest are the Islamic banks in The region (Sabri 2009, p. 58). The Islamic banks operating in Palestine include the Palestine Islamic Bank, Islamic Arab Bank, Cairo Amman Bank and Al-Aqsa Islamic Bank that were established between 1995 and 1998 (Palestine Investment Fund 2014). The main challenge that banks face is the fact that they have to compete in the same market as banks that were established more than 60 years ago such as the Arab Bank. However, this has not deterred these banks from making profits because they also provide investment opportunities that are attractive to the markets they target. Additionally, investment opportunities are scarce making competition between banks to be stiff and making it hard for new banks to penetrate this market (Gompert et al 2001, p. 121). Islamic banks, however, got into business based on them developing products such as Mudaraba, Musharaka, and Murabaha that provided new investment opportunities (Askari, Iqbal & Mirakhor 2011, n.p). The banks also had to devise new pricing so that they could attract profits based on the commission

Behavior Change amd the Environment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Behavior Change amd the Environment - Essay Example ..† Personally, I consider this idea as an expression of Pollan’s sense of responsibility toward the environment that primarily focuses on individual, conscientious action toward environmental welfare. This is because, throughout the article, Pollan provides suggestions on how to reduce one’s carbon footprints such as having a garden in the backyard. Pollan also suggests, in the later part of the article, that behavioral change for environmental welfare is an expression of independence, â€Å"to find ways to provide ourselves without diminishing the world† (255). Pollan also argues that although behavioral change may seem a futile effort, it is still a viable solution to the problem and this idea is grounded on the â€Å"chain reaction of behavioral change† wherein the action of a single person encourages other people to do the same. In Greed in the Name of Green, Hesse asserts that â€Å"going green† is not merely buying organic products; rat her, it is reducing the consumption of environmentally hazardous products. Throughout the article, Hesse maintains a sarcastic tone because she humorously criticizes the buying patterns of the consumers without them realizing the actual reason of doing such change. In the article, Hesse cites several instances wherein consumers change their buying patterns with the belief that those changes are environmentally beneficial. However, in retrospect, behavioral change is commonly undergone because â€Å"going green† has become a trend. Relatively, Hesse concludes that â€Å"when wannabe environmentalist tries to change purchasing habits without also altering their consumer mind-set, something gets lost in translation† (248). While reading the two articles, I realized that it is really necessary to evaluate our behaviors as consumers, particularly in relation to environmental welfare and protection. Although I realize that behavioral change may seem insufficient in recoverin g the deteriorating resources of the Earth, I would still go with the idea that behavior modification is a viable solution to the existing environmental problems. This is because behavioral change is a reasonable initiative to do, and it also benefits both the environment and the consumers. The Merits of Bothering to Change Consumer Behavior In the article Behavioral Analysis and Environmental Protection, Lehman and Geller assert that the lack of environmental concern and the increasing prevalence of non-eco-friendly products and services account to the destruction of the environment (14). Specifically, the materials used and the manner of production and transportation cause the increase in the carbon dioxide concentration of the Earth, which, in turn, increases the temperature by .6 degrees Celsius in the past 150 years. Lehman and Geller also report that the death of 800,000 people annually is attributable to air pollution (15). Considering this case, Lehman and Geller suggest tha t if human behavior is the reason of the increasing environmental deterioration, it may also be the reason for environmental recovery (13). The emergence of natural calamities and extreme weather conditions is enough reason to encourage people to change their buying behaviors and make environmentally conscious decisions. While reading the articles by Hesse and Pollan, I was able to derive three benefits of behavioral change for environmental welfare. Specifically, behavioral change

International business strategy Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

International business strategy - Case Study Example UK-based multinational telecommunications company with headquarters in London, is the world’s second largest mobile telecommunication organization in terms of subscribers and recent revenues. It owns and operates networks in over 20 countries as well as has operations through partner networks in over 40 countries. As part of its international strategy, Vodafone expanded its resources through mergers, acquisitions, and joint ventures. When viewed from contrary perspective, Vodafone started building its resources, particularly its physical and technological resources in the form of network infrastructure, through the above-mentioned three modes and thereby strengthened its international strategy further. â€Å"By 2013, it had established a significant presence in Europe, the Middle East, Asia Pacific and the USA through mergers and acquisitions, international joint ventures, and other forms of foreign direct investment† (Case Study). As Vodafone mainly targeted successful or potential local players for acquisition, mergers, and JVs, during their foreign entries, they are able to garner optimal resources. For example, during its entry into India, Vodafone acquired Hutchinson Essar for a sizable sum and that led to the garnering of strong existing physical and technological resources, which it further optimized. The other key technological resource gained by Vodafone as part of its international strategy is wireless spectrums through auctions, which has increased its competitive advantage further. Normally, governments of various countries would auction 2G, 3G, and even 4G spectrums to telecommunication companies through a competitive bidding process thereby earning good revenue. In that direction, Vodafone has won many auctions in many countries and has got hold of sizable spectrums. After Vodafone has gained these spectrum allocations, they are able to introduce or provide more features to its customers in its foreign operations and that will natura lly lead to its

Econometrics Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words - 1

Econometrics - Assignment Example Q.2.Suppose the impact of institutions on growth differed between African countries and the rest of the world. First, comment on why the model in equation (1) cannot capture this effect. Second, write out a model which can allow for this differential African effect. Third, develop a test that would allow you to statistically discern if this effect is actually supported by the data. Yi is the impact of institution growth in a country i, Ri the protection against expropriation, Lati is the latitude country I (measured as the distance from the equator, and scaled to lie between 0 and 1), D Africa is a dummy for country i is in Africa and D Other i is a dummy capturing if country I is in any other and continent ÃŽ ² as the observations made. From table 1, the dummy for Asia is –0.62 and the dummy for Africa is -1.00. This indicates that African countries have little protection against expropriation. The values are natural logarithms of the stated values over a given base sample. Inverses of the natural logs give 0.5379 for Asia and 0.3679 for Africa. The difference is thus 0.1700. This is also equal to 32.1% growth difference. By measuring latitude as a raw number, the effect of climate on performance would not be as precise as it is when measured from the equator, which is the central latitude and the correlation between distance from the equator and economic performance would be known, but with extremes. This changes the coefficient of the index of institutions growth. The estimates would increase, errors would increase as well and the regression, now based on raw numbers for latitudes would significantly reduce. The ordinary least squares are used in testing the heteroskedasticity. The first step is to make OLS estimates, and the residuals saved in exponents squared. Then the squared exponents are regressed on all the variables and their squares. Then obtain R2. If nR2 is too large, the null hypothesis Ho is rejected. The auxiliary model can be seen as

Visual analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Visual analysis - Essay Example The advertisement is in the most appropriate color palette. Red is the dominant color, which stirs up the piquancy of the paint. It is a vibrant color that gives a fine texture especially with the mixture of grey and black. The blend of color brings an atmosphere of calmness and creativity, which easily sells the brand to customers. The paint clearly uses a balance of color in the cartoon drawings, words and the color of the drink. The black merges well with red, whereas grey and white adds some lure to the advertisement. The shape of the bottle, drawings and the cartoons also give an impression of fine art. They bring a balance of different forms of art that produce a wholly captivating paint. The rhythm of the clouds surrounding the bottle give the feeling that once a person takes the drink, then they will be in a jovial mood occasioned by the positive energy. This advertisement is a paint that aims at marketing Coca-Cola drinks. It is a design that evokes the positive energy that a person can get when they take the drink. The perfection in display is one of a kind, the type of advertisement that makes a person buy something because of the beauty in the advertisement. It is only fair to say that the paint convinces a person to take the drink and get the energy. Still, the drink in the bottle just looks as sweet as the mixture of colors used to paint it. The paint tells people that Coca-Cola is also an energy-drink. People love drinks that are exceptionally good to their health. Thus, it is with no doubt that, the artistic work exhibited in the advertisement gives the idea that it is the most appropriate drink to take and build energy to undertake different activities. This advertisement is visibly a heart-winner and effortlessly influences people into drinking Coca-Cola. However, if they would use a photo of a person taking the drink, it would be more appealing than it is now. The target

Block Versus Traditional Scheduling Essay Example for Free

Block Versus Traditional Scheduling Essay This is a proposal to the study to investigate the affect of school scheduling on the student body. The short introduction will establish a purpose to view the students’ reaction to the block or traditional class schedule as the cornerstone of their success in their learning endeavor. Such study will promise to learn what has to be done to improve the student morale and to increase their effectiveness as learners, that is which specific scheduling type is instrumental in doing so. Since this is just a proposal to the study, and no actual study has been done, the readers will find no actual data sets yet. Introduction Intensive or short-term classes, also known as block scheduling have risen out of search for alternative ways to the traditional scheduling. Such classes are presented in segregated units and might have a different construction from a high school to college. Students might be exposed to six specific classes, two hours each for the duration of a quarter with another set of six classes following the next quarter. Daniels (2000) and Queen (2000) presented a study in which she objectified the contrast between block and traditional schedules. She confirmed that block scheduling became common on high school and college levels during the last decade. Post high school institutions explain infiltration of the block scheduling by incoming in a large numbers of non-traditional students. To serve such students better and to adapt to their schedules, the post secondary institutions initiated time-shortened courses, however more intensive, fitting two sets of class load in one semester. Per Daniels’ research, half of surveyed post secondary institutions have been using some sort of block scheduling (also see Stodden, Galloway, L. , Stodden, 2003). In the surveyed institutions the block schedule did not have a unified formation, either. Some moved to so-called quarter hours in which each student would take several classes for each quarter (three months) four quarters a year including a summer session(s). Other institutions provided scheduling that formed even more intensive course load. Marric College in Sacramento, California, in particular has students enroll into two courses lasting six weeks. Each class would last four hours and be offered once a week. Justification of study Such tendency became widespread and included many Nation’s high schools. Many educators Mcleskey Welle (2000) expressed a concern that a lack of uniformity among the schools and at times controversial findings might jeopardize the quality of instructional delivery. Some evidence suggests that the instruction must me at least 10 to 12 weeks short and presented a few times during the week in order to provide some significant impact on learning. It does appear that high school and postsecondary institutions are more concerned of quantity of classes being offered rather than the quality of the instruction. After all, the argument that acceleration of the course load provides mode intense study opportunity is limited in that there is not enough time to study the subject matter deeper. Purpose There is no doubt that such diversity of schedule types in many different schools does not benefit uniformity of the instruction (Jenkins, Queen Algozzine, 2002). The very fact that different schools, even within the same district, may exercise different type of scheduling appears to be disturbing. Despite the fact that a number of researchers offered study-type investigations into the dilemma, it is still very difficult to find the concrete results based on two high schools within the same school district: one with block scheduling and another with traditional. Even when found there was no study available to test the students’ comfort level and presence or absence of stress when subjected to either block or traditional scheduling. Hence, the purpose of this study is to attempt to derive more narrow and directed conclusions with the following Null Hypothesis: HO: Participants did not experience any stress level or discomfort when subjected to one quarter of block scheduling HA: Participants experienced significant (p. 5) manifestation of discomfort and/or stress when exposed to block scheduling. To provide the quantitative opportunity, this researcher suggests devising a scale that would quantify the participants’ stress reaction to the stimuli. For example: 1 – No physiological/biological/psychological symptoms experienced during or after one block of classes is given. 2 – Some symptoms are experienced but do not produce any noticeable symptoms. 3 – Symptoms cause some psychological or physical manifestations that can be observed and recorded (non-natural posture, felt awkwardness, feeling/being clumsy, to some degree irritated). 4 – Extreme nervousness, body perspiration, observable irritation presentation, failing classes, cutting classes, feeling ill often. Definition of Theoretical Constructs and Research Design The research will measure levels of stress during and/or after attending classes in the students in block scheduling versus the students in traditional scheduling. There are plenty of stated theories under the guise of stress research, however, this researcher found none that would examine the psychological state of students in and under block schedule versus their peers who are in the traditional scheduling. 1) degree of the schedule control/pressure on the students 2) degree and specific direction of initial reaction of students. 3) the degree of the school homeostatic reaction in its attempt to maintain status quo Negative attitude toward scheduling can be viewed as following states-of-being: a) self-pity b) helplessness c) low self-afficacy d) irritation 5) increased clumsiness The degree of school control/pressure can be quantified on nominal scale: 1 – feel no pressure/stress. Like classes and attend them with pleasure. Feel free to manifest my creativity. Am aware that every of my creative ideas are manifested in the productive process of my education. 2 – freedoms of creativity somewhat limited. There is a limited time to express myself. Some of my ideas/concepts are not heard/considered. Small degree of the schedule influence on my life outside the school is felt at times (more homework). 3 – feel pressure from the higher pressure of scheduling. My ideas/concepts are not considered most of the times. Feeling that sharing my ideas can lead me in to trouble. Feeling not important to the school (or my class). Feeling not appreciated. 4 – feel constant (daily) pressure from the scheduling. Feeling being controlled (puppet-like state) by the scheduling. No ideas are being considered (or no time at all to share). Feel invisible. Perceive the message from teachers, â€Å"You are the small nut in the big mechanism. You must do your part consistently and efficiently, without aberration. † Feeling trapped, depressed, and unhappy. Missing days of school due to â€Å"illness. † The degree of initial reaction to the scheduling type can be quantified as follows. A – Absence of any stress. Study duties seem easy and comfortable to perform. No anger or any negative feelings toward the teachers. B – Minimum stress level. Most days are comfortable and pleasant. Occasional and minimum negative reaction toward the teachers. C – Moderate stress. Three out of five school days are not comfortable and are stressful. Being critical to the teachers. Often complaining and/or expressing negative feelings to other students. Fear of negative opinion of the teachers. D – Daily stress. Not comfortable performing schoolwork. Feeling of constantly being watched. Covert and at times overt feelings of hostility toward teachers. Strong urge to become instrumental in changing things around or drop out. Complain with open hostility. The degree of the organizational homeostatic reaction in its attempt to maintain status quo can be quantified as follows (in case if the participants answered 3/4 or C/D in previous scales): i) No events occur. Nothing to make stressed situation more stressful. ii) Some events do occur. All events, however, are under control and none are long-lasting. iii) Events that occur are unpleasant and might be somewhat threatening in nature. Most bear unpleasant conversations/explanations with teachers. Most â€Å"fire† can be put down but require some effort. Some have the potential to become cause for administrative actions and other sanctions. iv) Events are very serious in nature. Most are felt like the cause of a complete failure or even drop out. May have the potential of causing disturbance in classes. Very difficult for the â€Å"fire† to be put down and requires a significant amount of effort. v) Events result in separation from the school: suspension. This researcher proposes to use p . 05 as the probability value. He will solicit two randomly selected groups with 30 students in each: one would be under the current block schedule and another under traditional one within the same school. Mitchel Jolley (2004) suggested an effective randomizer that might work well in this scenario. The fact that two very different by nature of business schedules should cause different reactions from students and will contribute to more complete understanding of the schedule affect on the student body. The survey (pre-test) will be administered to all 60 participants in both groups. The data will be tabulated to form the initial quantity (starting point) from which this researcher will operate. The purpose of the survey is to find out (to quantify) the initial psychological state of each student in two groups. The same survey will be administered in the midterm (six weeks later) and at the conclusion of 12-week research period. Data will ve compared, contrasted, and tabulated. Contributions This researcher believes that this study will provide a new and fresh approach to the study of scheduling influence on the students. If allowed to experiment the school’s administration will have an opportunity to learn how each type of scheduling will affect students and to develop the student body with the least amount and manifestation of stress and with the highest possible morale and study ethics. As the result, the study productivity will increase and the quality of the learning will improve 100 fold. References Daniel, E. L. (2000). A Review of Time-Shortened Courses across Disciplines. College Student Journal, 34(2), 298. Retrieved May 15, 2007, from Questia database: http://www. questia. com/PM. qst? a=od=5001760249 Jenkins, E. , Queen, A. , Algozzine, B. (2002). To Block or Not to Block: Thats Not the Question. The Journal of Educational Research, 95(4), 196+. Retrieved May 15, 2007, from Questia database: http://www. questia. com/PM. qst? a=od=5000642089 Mitchell, M. L. , Jolley, J. M. (2007). Research design explained (6th ed. ). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/Thomson Queen, J. A. (2000). Block Scheduling Revisited. Phi Delta Kappan, 82(3), 214. Retrieved May 15, 2007, from Questia database: http://www. questia. com/PM. qst? a=od=5001115634 Stodden, R. A. , Galloway, L. , Stodden, N. J. (2003). Secondary School Curricula Issues: Impact on Postsecondary Students with Disabilities. Exceptional Children, 70(1), 9+. Retrieved May 15, 2007, from Questia database: http://www. questia. com/PM. qst? a=od=5002033905 Weller, D. R. , Mcleskey, J. (2000). Block Scheduling and Inclusion in a High School. Remedial and Special Education, 21(4), 209. Retrieved May 15, 2007, from Questia database: http://www. questia. com/PM. qst? a=od=5001073229

Identification of Dermatophytes | Experiment

Identification of Dermatophytes | Experiment Abstract Dermatophytosis constitutes a group of superficial fungal infections of keratinized structures like stratum corneum of the skin, nails and hair. Despite the availability of effective antifungal agents, dermatophytic infections continue to be one of the principal infections throughout the world, especially in tropical countries like India. Identification of causative dermatophytic species in clinical settings are not only of epidemiological concerns but also important for the treatment of rather common dermatophytosis with great precision. To study the clinical variants, species of fungi causing dermatophytic infections, epidemiological factors responsible for the disease in central Mysore, molecular characterization and antifungal susceptibility tests by MIC. The prospective observational analyses of clinically suspected 600 dermatophytic infected cases were studied at the Dermatology department of K.R. Hospital and C.S.I. Holdsworth Memorial Hospital, Mysore, India. The study was conducted from November 2010 to October 2012. All the cases were evaluated and patient’s data were recorded as per pre-designed proforma. Skin scraping, hair and nail samples were collected, processed, molecular characterization and antifungal susceptibility test were done according to standard mycological protocol. Patients on topical and systemic antifungal treatment were excluded from the present study. Clinically suspected 600 patients samples were collected, among them 389 (64.8%) were skin scraping, 113 (18.8%) were hair plucking and 98 (16.3%) were nail clipping. They were processed for isolation and identification of dermatophytes from different clinical types. The specific and non specific variables effecting dermatophytosis were also analyzed. Samples were collected throughout the year, of which samples collected from July to October showed highest incidence of dermatophyte infection among patients. The number of specimen collected under the age group 21-30 years were 333 (55.5%), which was statistically significant (PMicrosporum canis and 12 were infected by Trichophyton verrucosum. Among 600 clinically suspected dermatophytes infected patients, 433 (72.2%) samples were collected from K.R. Hospital and 167 (27.8%) samples were collected from C.S.I. Holdsworth Memorial Hospital, Mysore. The various factors which were found to increase chances of acquiring dermatophytosis were by sharing bed, 343 (57.2%); not bathing daily, 362 (60.3%); and domestic animals in their house, 102 (17.0%). Partial treatment and over the counter medication was also considered as major factors influencing dermatophytic infection among patients. Less number of patients 86 (14.3%) showed family history of dermatophytosis. Most of the patients visited to the Doctor in 5th-8th week after infection, 391 (53.2%). During that period of infection, they were either taking home made medicine or over the counter medicine. Most of the cases found predominantly were tinea corporis and tinea capitis. Tinea corporis 282 (47.0%) and tinea capitis 75 (12.5%) were seen among 26-30 year old patients and 6-10 year old patients respectively. Most of the isolates belonged to three genera and eight species, where T. mentagrophytes was predominantly isolated 105 (29.7%), T. rubrum 84 (23.8%) was isolated from tinea corporis cases, T. violacium 4 (12.2%), T. verrucosum 54 (15.3%), Epidermophyton floccosum 11 (3.1%), M. canis 13 (3.6%), T. tonsurans 38 (10.8%) and T. schoenleinii 5 (1.4%) were also isolated from different cases of tinea. Dermatophytes infected culture positive, 132 patient samples (skin scrapings, hair plucking and nail clipping), were obtained for molecular characterization in the study. Nearly 87 males and 45 females were referred by Department of Dermatology, K.R. Hospital and C.S.I. Holdsworth Memorial Hospital, Mysore during two years of study period. The collected samples were analyzed by both direct microscopic examination and culture assays. Of the 132 culture positive cases, the organisms identified by phenotypic characterization were belonging to three genera and eight species viz., T. mentagrophytes 52 (39.4%), T. rubrum 30 (22.7%), T. violacium 18 (13.6%), T. verrucosum 11 (8.3%), E. floccosum 10 (7.6%), M. canis 6 (4.5%), T. tonsurans 3 (2.3%) and T. schoenleinii 2 (1.5%). The culture isolates of these organisms were further characterized by PCR. The present study showed positive result for phenotypically analyzed culture positive with 100% sensitivity and specificity by PCR. PCR targeting internal transcribed spacer (ITS) and Chitin synthase 1 was sensitive to detect 10 picograms and 1 femtogram of T. rubrum DNA respectively. From the same source (houses) 10 isolates from patients and 10 domestic animals were subjected to both PCR and RFLP. The product after agarosegel electrophoresis, restriction enzyme cutting patern was found to be infected by same T. verrucosum with 100% sensitivity and specificity. This indicates that T. verrucosum infection is from animal source. The dermatophyte specific primer based PCR-RFLP which targets the internal transcribed spacer and chitin synthase 1 region are useful in the direct identification of der ­matophytosis from clinical specimens. The application of the Hae III, Hinf I and Mva I restriction enzymes by using the ITS amplicons and chitin synthase 1 region are constant, stable and reproducible show variation within the species, so these sequences have been widely used to develop rapid procedures for the identification of fungal species by PCR-RFLP analysis. The PCR-RFLP method, on using the dermatophyte specific primer with restriction enzymes Mva I, Hae III and Hinf I, showed species differentiation among the T. rubrum and T. mentagrophytes isolates. Since direct microscopy and culture have limitations, performing a direct PCR on the clinical speci ­mens can augment the diagnosis of more dermatophytic cases. PCR confirmed 132 dermatophytic samples were taken for antifungal sensitivity test. In the current study, among 132 isolates of dermatophytes some are sensitive and some are moving towards resistance, but high MIC value indicated that it has slowly acquired adaptation towards the drug. This indicates in near future it will develop drug resistance against the antifungal agents. Twenty three isolates (14.4%) were showing high MIC value for fluconazole of which T. mentagrophytes (8), T. rubrum (5) and T. verrucosum (10) and M. canis (3) had MIC50 of 16  µg ml-1. Second most frequently used drug next to fluconazole is ketoconazole, which had MIC50 of 0.125  µg ml-1 for most of the isolates. Griseofulvin, itraconazole and terbinafine showed similar results of 0.03-0.06  µg ml-1. The present study showed drug concentration inhibition of some fungi against 50% of isolates and 90% of isolates and their geometric mean of five drugs against 132 isolates. MIC50 and MIC90 were not determined because of small number of samples i.e., C. parapsilosis ATCC-22019 were within the value standardized by CLSI guidelines. The study highlighted tinea corporis as the most common clinical pattern of dermatophytosis followed by tinea capitis in Mysore. The predominant causative fungal species isolated were T. mentagrophytes, T. rubrum, T. violacium, T. verrucosum, E. floccosum, M. canis, T. tonsurans and T. schoenleinii confirmed by PCR with 100% sensitivity and specificity. Trichophyton verrucosum was isolated and confirmed by PCR and RFLP from human and their domestic animals (from animals to human). PCR-RFLP provides the best technique for dermatophytic identification at species level. MIC was done to see susceptibility and resistance pattern for clinician as well as for lab workers where terbinafine was 100% sensitive drug against dermatophytes. Clinical evaluation and fungal species identification are mandatory for proper management of dermatophytosis rather than empirical treatment. Need for the study In the medical science dermatophytes are constant parasites of human beings, and has survived several generations of therapeutic regimens, ranging from single dose antifungal to several dose drugs like griseofulvin, tolnaftate and early imidazole. There are some dermatophytes which were abundant once upon a time but now it is rare, it may be due to geographical restrictions, indicate that economy, geography, type of the species and environmental factors also interferes with the dermatophytic survival and distribution. It is equally important to review anthropophilic dermatophyte as well as zoophilic dermatophytes, which may increase chances of infection in the near future, as immunocompromised diseases are increasing day by day. The dermatophytes are oldest parasites of human and animals. Good and specified knowledge about these agents are still far from human understanding. The medical mycologists have done considerable work, but the studies were mainly devoted to the reactions of the host rather than the study of the parasites. The rates of publication on dermatophytes are limited as compared to the extensive work being done in the field of bacteriology and virology. As we know, these dermatophytic infections are not usually life threatening, but offer an interesting approach to the variety of fundamental problems in human, animals and fungal biology. The obvious reasons apparently disregard to the study of Medial Mycology Most of the fungal diseases are not fatal and hence do not attract much attention of the investigators. The development of the infection is very slow and persists for years without any serious damage to the host. Carrier among human and animals is very common and survives for decades without harming the host. Methods of isolation and identification are relatively very complicated and require long time to obtain positive results. Most of them are sensitive to the limited antifungal drugs except few and drug resistance is very slow and limited. Sources of infection are mostly human, animals and soil. Factors that attract to do research on dermatophytes Increasing incidence of immunocompromised diseases in and around the world. Changing patterns of dermatophytic infections with change in environment. Development of resistant species among the dermatophytes. Carrier harbours pathogenic species for many years to produce disease under favourable condition. Formulate treatment of choice according to the new changing pattern of drug resistant dermatophytes. Fungal infections of skin, hair and nail are common in hot and humid climate. Humans acquire various dermatophytic infections due to poor health hygienic conditions. The present investigation was aimed to study molecular level identification of tinea by PCR and its antifungal susceptibility test. Objectives of the study To study the incidence of dermatophytic infections and their clinical variants To identify the sources of infection by PCR for dermatophytes To determine the in vitro antifungal susceptibility test Slide culture For visualization of the normal colonial characteristics, arrangement and morphology of spores and mycelial appendages, slide culture was done. SDA media without antibiotics or cornmeal agar with 1% glucose was used. Lactophenol cotton blue was used as the mounting fluid for easy visualization of hyphae and spores (WHO, 1986). Advantages It is arapid method of preparing fungal colonies for examination and identification. Permits fungi to be studied virtually in situ with as little disturbance as possible fungi were identified mostly by close examination of its morphology and the characteristics it possess. We were growing the fungi directly on the slide on a thin film of agar. By doing this, there was no need to remove a portion of the fungus from a culture plate and transfer it to the slide. So there wasless chances for the features that were key to identification, notably the spore-bearing structures, without any damage. A modified method adapted from Roberts et al. (2003) and described here fulfills those requirements. Sterile 1.5% water agar (7 to 8 ml) was poured into sterile 60-mm plastic petri plates and allowed to solidify. A sterile 22-mm2 cover glass was centered on the agar. The desired nutrient agar medium (10 ml) was poured into a second 60-mm petri dish, allowed to solidify, and cut with a sterile stainless steel spatula into blocks approximately 5 to 8 mm2. One block was aseptically removed and placed on the cover glass. Inoculation of the agar block on one or more sides with fungal hyphae or conidia was followed by placement of a second sterile cover glass on top of it. After the petridish lid was replaced, the completed modified slide culture was incubated at the desired temperature until adequate growth and conidiogenesis had occurred. Each cover glass was used to prepare a semi permanent mount on a standard microscope slide 3 by 1 inch (7.62 by 2.54 cm). The top cover glass was lifte d off with forceps and wetted on the specimen side with a drop of ethanol (70 to 90%). One drop of fungus mounting medium (e.g., lactophenol cotton blue) was applied to the specimen, and the cover glass was lowered gently onto the slide, specimen side down. The bottom cover glass was lifted from the water agar and similarly mounted on a second slide. The nutrient agar block adhered to one of the cover glasses during the cover glass mounting procedure and was carefully lifted off with a sterile dissecting needle before the application of alcohol and mounting medium. Heat fixation of the cover glasses before mounting as described by McGinnis may improve the stability of the conidium-bearing structures (James, 2011). Lactophenol Cotton Blue (LPCB) The Lactophenol Cotton Blue wet mount preparation was the most widely used method of staining and observing fungi and was simple to prepare. The preparation has three components: phenol, which will kill any live organisms; lactic acid which preserves fungal structures, and cotton blue which stains the chitin in the fungal cell walls. It was used constantly as a mounting fluid when examining culture of fungi microscopically (Leck, 2012). Materials Lactic acid †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 20 ml Phenol (crystals†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 20 gm Glycerine†¦.†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 40 ml Water (distilled)†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 20 ml Mixed the above gently and added 50 mg the dye,  cotton blue. Procedure Placed a drop of 70% alcohol on a microscope slide. Immersed the specimen / material in the drop of alcohol. Added one or at most two drops of the lactophenol cotton blue mount and stained before the alcohol dries out. Holding the cover slip between forefinger and thumb, touched one edge of the drop of mount with the cover slip edge, and lowered gently, avoiding air bubbles. The preparation was ready for examination. Hair penetration test Many isolates of T. rubrum and T. mentagrophytes are difficult to distinguish between on the basis of colony morphology and microscopic appearance. This in vitro test is the best method to distinguish between these two dermatophytes: Procedure Obtained a small amount of juvenile human hair and washed off fats and oils (kept hair in flask or beaker with 50 to 100 ml of ether, acetone or alcohol, shacked for 2 to 5 minutes and pour off the liquid). With scissors, a scalpel or a razor blade cut the hair into segments approximately 1 cm long. Put the hair in a glass petri plates, place on the lid and autoclaved for 10 to 15 minutes. This maintained sterility in the petri plates and can be used for 10 years. Calcofluor White Stain (CFW) It is a fluorescent stain for rapid detection of yeasts, fungi and parasitic organisms. Calcofluor White stain is a non-specific fluorochrome that binds to cellucose and chitin in cell walls (Chattaway and Barlow, 1954; Green et al., 1983; Hageage and Harrington, 2005). Composition: Calcofluor White M2R 1g/l and Evans blue 0.5g/l. Directions: Put the sample to be examined onto a clean glass slide. Add one drop of Calcofluor White Stain and one drop of 10% Potassium Hydroxide Place a cover slip over the specimen and let stand for 1 minute. Examine the slide under UV light at 100X to 400X magnification. Calcofluor White Stain was a non-specific fluorochrome that binds with cellulose and chitin contained in the cell walls of fungi and other organisms. The staining procedure with Calcofluor White Stain is a rapid method for the detection of many yeasts and pathogenic fungi like Microsporidium, Acanthamoeba, Pneumocystis, Naegleria, and Balamuthia species. Evans blue present in the stain act as a counter stain and diminishes background fluorescence of tissues and cells when using blue light excitation (not UV). A range of 300 to 440 nm (Emmax 433nm; 0.1 M phosphate pH 7.0; cellulose) can be taken for emission wave length and the excitation occurs around 355nm. Fungal or parasitic organisms appear fluorescent bright green to blue, while other material is reddish-orange fluorescent. Attentions to be taken as cotton fibers will fluoresce strongly as well amoebic cysts are fluorescent. One drop of 10% potassium hydroxide solution can be added for better visualization of fungal elements.

Risk Factors of Cardiovascular Drugs

Risk Factors of Cardiovascular Drugs Characteristics and risk factors of Cardiovascular Drugs induced Adverse Drug Reactions: Hospital based Active Surveillance Study. Abstract: Background: Adverse Drug Reactions (ADRs) is one of the major drug-related problems in hospitalized patients. Several studies report the incidence various from 10 50% of all hospital admissions due to ADRs and no recent data available on the safety of cardiovascular drug from India. Aim: This study aims 1). To estimate incidence and characteristics of ADRs due to cardiovascular drugs in patients admitted in cardiology unit of a tertiary care teaching hospital. 2) To identify the risk factors for ADRs in hospitalized patients treated with cardiovascular drugs. Methods: A prospective active surveillance study was carried out in the cardiology department of a south Indian tertiary care teaching hospital for eight months. Population averaged Poisson regression [Generalized Estimating Equation (GEE)] models was used to estimate the adjusted relative risk associated with ADR. Results: The overall incidence of cardiovascular drug induced ADRs was 31.8%. A total of 757 patients treated cardiovascular medications. Of which 241 patients (31.8%) including 122 (16.1%) females and 119 (15.7%) males reported at least one ADR. Aspirin produced the highest number of ADRs (150; 38.7%) followed by Heparin (45; 11.6%), Atorvastatin (24; 6.2%) and Ramipril (24; 6.2%). The causality assessment reveals that 85.3% of ADRs were probable in nature. GEE was used to estimate the adjusted relative risk of each covariate associated with ADRs. The predictors of ADRs identified were: female gender, age > 60 years, multiple drug therapy (p= 0.0231) and concurrent diseases like diabetes, drugs like Heparin (RR-2.90, 95% CI 2.22-3.8) and Enalapril (RR-1.95, 95% CI 1.34-2.83). Conclusion: The incidence of cardiovascular ADRs was 31.8%. The most common drugs causing ADRs were the anti- platelet and anticoagulant class of drugs. Female gender, age > 60 years, multiple drug therapy, concurrent illness and certain drugs like heparin were identified as potential predictors for adverse reactions. Keywords: adverse drug reactions, hospitalized patients, cardiovascular drugs, pharmacovigilance, Risk factors Key Messages: This study reports the risk factors for adverse reactions to cardiovascular drugs from an Indian clinical setting. The incidence of cardiovascular drugs induced ADRs was 31.8%, which is higher than many reported studies. Anti-platelet and anticoagulant drugs were commonly associated with ADRs in the study population. Introduction: Adverse Drug Reactions (ADRs) is one of the major drug-related problems in hospitalized patients. ADRs are one of the major drug-related problems, resulting in increased morbidity and mortality and healthcare costs.[1-3]The WHO defines an ADR as a response to a drug that is noxious and unintended and occurs at doses normally used in man for the prophylaxis, diagnosis or therapy of disease, or for modification of physiological function.[4] The prevalence of cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) has increased in recent years and it has been estimated that CVDs are the most common cause of death.[5] Reports on drug related problems including adverse drug reactions associated with cardiovascular pharmacotherapy are available.[6-10]Studies report that cardiovascular drugs may account for 10 to 50% of all hospital admissions due to ADRs.[11-13] There are reports of serious adverse drug events with cardiovascular drugs.[14]Continuous monitoring of ADRs are important in patients treated with cardiovascular drugs since, these patients who need multiple drug therapies to treat their comorbid conditions and other related risks[15] Various methods are used to detect ADRs in hospitalized patients.[16] Analyzing the adverse reaction data in relation to the presence of risk factors provide the link between the ADRs and the associated factors. Such analysis might help to identify patients who are at increased risk for the adverse reaction and therefore employing suitable monitoring and the preventive procedure is possible.[17] Reports are available on the risk factors for adverse reactions.[18-20] Studies have shown that the cardiovascular drugs are most common cause of ADRs.[6,21]A university hospital-based studies report 49 % ADRs are due to commonly used cardiovascular drugs (nitrates, digoxin, propranolol, heparin, warfarin, anti-hypertensive and anti-arrhythmic drugs)[22] A number of studies are available on the adverse effects of cardiovascular drugs. In the Indian context data on adverse effects of the cardiovascular drugs is not available. Therefore, the current study was planned to evaluate ADRs due to cardiovascular drugs in hospitalized patients. This study aims 1). To estimate incidence and characteristics of ADRs due to cardiovascular drugs in patients admitted in cardiology unit of a tertiary care teaching hospital. 2) To identify the risk factors for ADRs in hospitalized patients treated with cardiovascular drugs. Subjects and Methods: A prospective active surveillance study was carried out in the department of cardiology of a tertiary care teaching hospital for eight months (Feb to Sep 2009). The study protocol was reviewed and approved by the institutional ethical committee. All patients admitted to the cardiovascular units were monitored and evaluated for cardiovascular drugs induced adverse reactions. Patients who were previously treated or newly prescribed with cardiovascular drugs were monitored and followed for detecting and recording of ADRs. Adverse drug reactions were identified by conducting a daily patient charts review, patient interview, and consultations with treating physicians. In the suspected cases, past medical/medication history of patients were collected. In addition to patients medication history, information on co-morbidities was also collected. We used the WHO criteria for defining ADRs.[4] For every identified patient with ADR, two patients without ADRs were enrolled as matched controls. The information pertaining to the suspected ADRs was collected and documented in a specially designed ADR computerized documentation database for further assessment.[23] An ADR alert card was distributed to those patients who experienced severe adverse reactions to prevent further re-exposure of the suspected drug. All ADRs were reviewed and assessed by the research team. The documented ADRs were evaluated and characterized respect to patient demographics, nature of the reactions, drugs and organ system involved and outcome of the reactions. Using standard approach, the Causality, severity, preventability and the presences of predisposing factors of the reactions were assessed and reported. Patients age and sex were considered for the analysis. ADRs were classified as either Type A or Type B according to the system introduced by Rawlins and Thompson.[24] The suspected drugs were classified according to Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical (ATC) classification based on WHO-ATC Index 2009.[25]Using WHO Adverse Reaction Terminology documented ADRs were further classified into various organ system classes.[26] Management strategies employed for the ADRs were categorized as drug withdrawal, dose reduction, additional treatment for ADR and no change in a regimen without any additional treatment. Patient outcomes were reported as fatal, fully recovered, recovering and unknown. The causality of suspected ADRs was assessed using Naranjos ADR probability scale and classified into certain, probable, possible and unlikely to be drug induced depending upon the level of association.[27] The preventability of ADRs was analyzed and categorized into definitely preventable, probably preventable and not preventable using the modified criteria of Schumock and Thornton by Lau et al.[28]Using the criterion developed by Hartwig et al., for severity assessment, we assessed the suspected ADRs and classified into mild, moderate and severe reactions.[29] The onset of ADRs was assessed and classified into sub-acute, latent and acute groups.[4] Predisposing/risk factors Many patient-related factors predispose the occurrence of ADRs. The patient related factors like age, gender, multiple and inter-current disease states, and polypharmacy are considered as significant risk factor for developing ADR.[30] Patients age was categorized into 6 groups (less than 20 years, 21-30 years, 31-40 years, 41-50 years, 51-60 years, more than 60 years). Polypharmacy was categorized as minor (2-3 drugs), moderate (4-5 drugs) or major (5 drugs) based on the classification by Veehof et al.[31] Gender of the patient was also considered as a one of the predispose factor for the development of ADRs. Multiple disease state ( > 2 coded diseases) of the patient at the time of reaction also include in the analysis. The overall incidence of ADRs was calculated using the total number of in-patient episodes which resulted in ADRs in relation to the total number of in-patients followed during the study period. The length of hospital stay for each patient was collected from Hospital Patient Administrative System (HPAS) and used to compare the Length of Stay (LOS) between patients with and without ADRs. Additional hospital stay due to ADRs was assessed using the nature and clinical features of ADRs, discussion with treating medical staffs and assessment of patients medical records. Statistical analysis Descriptive statistics was used summarize the patient demographic and clinical characteristics like gender, diagnosis, a number of drug dispensed, the frequency of ADR, drugs involved, organ system involved and severity of ADRs. Mean with 95% confidence interval was used to summarize age and LOS. Chi-square test was used to find the association between age group, gender, the LOS with and without ADRs. Relative risk was used to measure the strength of association. The data were hierarchically arranged, to count the multiple ADR episodes which can occur with multiple admissions. Population averaged Poisson regression (GEE) was used to estimate the adjusted relative risk of each covariate associated with ADR.[32,33] Further compound symmetry was used to account for the within-subject correlation. All analysis was performed using SPSS for window 15 (SPSS Inc., South Asia, Bangalore). The significance level was set at P Results: A total of 757 patients (431 men and 326 women) using cardiovascular medications were intensively monitored. The mean age of the study population was 57.21  ± 14.22 years (18 -92 years). The average length of hospital stay was 10.6  ± 5.8 days. Overall, the incidence of ADRs was 31.84%. Two hundred and fourteen patients including 122 females and 119 males reported at least one ADR. Maximum of six ADRs were reported from one patient. Compared to males, females developed more of ADRs was observed more in females when (p 0.0001). The length of stay was increased due to ADR for a minimum of 3 days and a maximum of 28 days. The frequency of different age groups in patients with and without ADRs is presented in table-1. The main diagnosis of the study population is listed in table-1. Age group of less than 20 years is excluded because of lower sample size. Age group of more than 60 years had more ADRs compared to other age groups. Cardiovascular risk factors of a patient with and without ADR are shown in table-2. The most frequent system-organ class affected by ADRs was Platelet, bleeding clotting disorders (188, 48.89%), followed by metabolic and nutritional disorders (53, 13.66%) and gastrointestinal system disorders (50, 12.89%) (Table-3). The most common strategy for management of ADRs was drug withdrawal (94.3%) and dose alteration (5.4%) (Table-4). The mean length of hospital stay was 13.3 and 6.5 days for patients with and without ADR respectively. The length of stay was found to be longer in patients with ADR. Aspirin produced the highest number of reactions (150; 38.7%) followed by heparin (45; 11.6%), Atorvastatin (24; 6.2%) and Ramipril (24; 6.2%) (Table -3) with Platelet, bleeding clotting disorders (188, 48.89%). The most frequently reported reaction was bleeding (186; 47.9%) followed by gastric ulcer (52, 13.4%) (Table-3). The causality assessment of ADRs revealed that 85.31% of ADRs were classified as probable, followed by 7.99% as definite and 6.7% as possible. 64.4 % patients recovered from the ADRs and 35.6 % were recovering at the time of discharge (Table-4). The GEE analysis shows that the female, alcoholics, smokers and patients those taking more than 7 drugs had a higher risk for developing an ADR. (Table-2). Statistical analyses also revealed that patient taking Heparin (RR 2.90, 95% CI 2.22-3.80, Enalapril (RR 1.95, 95% CI 1.34-2.83), warfarin (RR 1.69, 95% CI 1.33-2.54) had a significantly increased probability of developing of ADRs (Table-5). Discussion: ADRs can significantly increase patients mortality or morbidity and consequently higher healthcare expenditure.[34] The study findings reveal that developing an ADRs in hospitalized patients substantially contribute to patients morbidity, further increasing the disease burden and cost of managing ADRs. The incidence of ADRs (31.8%) found in this study was twice higher than a previously reported systematic review of international studies (15.1%).[2] The present study showed that females experienced a higher incidence of ADRs (9.87%) when compared to males (7.23%) which are similar to the findings of previously published studies.[1,35-37]Several reasons have been put forth for this observed difference. Men and women have a different pharmacodynamic response to various drugs; which may consider as one of the factors for women to develop more number of ADRs. But in a study reported by Jose., on comparable Indian population male patients were found to have more ADRs than female population .[38] The incidence of ADRs was higher in the elderly patients (31.19%; age > 60 Years) compare to other age groups. (à Ã¢â‚¬ ¡2= 23.03, df-5, p 0.0001); this finding is similar to the results of Mohebbi et al.[19] Studies have shown that the incidence of ADRs may increase with increasing age. Again, due to multiple comorbid conditions and receive multiple drug therapy the elderly patients tend to have a higher risk for developing an ADR. In addition, older individuals undergo changes in drug responsiveness and disposition.[39] It appears that elderly patients need more attention to prevent the occurrence of ADRs. In this study, the incidence of Aspirin-induced ADRs was 38.7% (n=150); which was the highest rate compared to other cardiovascular drugs in this study. However, High rates of ADRs with streptokinase have been reported previously.[40]Studies reported a rate of amiodarone-induced ADRs as 16%, whereas in the current study it was too low at 0.5%.[41] This might be due to the lower use of amiodarone in the current study subjects. In a study conducted by Wiffen et al., investigating ADRs induced by all groups of drugs, warfarin was among the top three drugs causing ADRs.[42] In our study, the rate of ADRs attributed to warfarin was just 3.6%, whereas heparin-induced bleeding was the second highest ADR in this study population (45, 11.6%). In this study, we found central nervous and gastrointestinal systems are the most frequently affected organ system classes by ADRs. These findings were similar to the findings of a study conducted in Iran.[13]The incidence of preventable ADRs in this study (6.9%) is comparably lower than those detected in other studies.[34]This might be probably due to intensive monitoring of CCU patients in our study. The rate of serious ADRs (22.2%) detected in this study tend to be higher than other studies.[14] Population averaged Poisson regression (GEE) model showed that factors like gender and age of more than 60 years, multiple drug therapy and the presence of co-morbidity were risk factors for experiencing ADRs. The average duration of drug usage was found to be longer in patients without ADR. It appears that most of the ADRs have been noted shortly after initiating cardiovascular drugs and the incidence of ADRs in this study population was not related to the duration of usage. Similar to findings of many other studies, increasing the number of drugs led to increased frequency of ADRs. Conclusion The finding of this study indicates that cardiovascular drugs cause serious and frequent adverse reactions. The incidence of cardiovascular ADRs was 31.84%. The most common drugs causing ADRs were the anti-platelet and anticoagulant class of drugs. Female gender, age more than 60 years and use of more than 7 drugs was found to be the risk factors for developing ADRs. The identified incidence was higher than many reported studies. The current study identified the common ADRs and their predictors. Patients with identified predictors for adverse drug reactions can be intensively monitored and necessary preventive measures can be initiated if signs of reactions are observed.

Death Penalty :: essays research papers fc

Death Penalty In 1972, the Supreme Court declared that under then existing laws "the imposition and carrying out of the death penalty ... constitutes cruel and unusual punishment in violation of the Eighth and Fourteenth Amendments." The majority of the Court concentrated its objections on the way death-penalty laws had been applied, finding the result so "harsh and freakish" as to be constitutionally unacceptable. In 1976 more than 600 people had been sentenced to death under new capital-punishment statutes that provided guidance for the jury's sentencing decision. These statutes typically require a two-stage trial procedure, in which the jury first determines guilt or innocence and then chooses imprisonment or death in the light of aggravating or relieve circumstances. Executions proceeded throughout 1977 and in the early 1990s nearly 3000 people were sentenced to that death penalty and more then 180 had been executed. The death penalty does not arise from misplaced sympathy for convicted murderers. Murder demonstrates a lack of respect for human life. For this very reason, murder is despicable, and any policy of state-authorized killings is immoral. The death penalty could also be a good thing. If crazy people out there realize what the high consequences are for killing someone they may think twice before acting on hurting someone. Most people don't know which side to go on when it comes to the death penalty. Of course if it has to do with your family or close friends you will have no question about whether or not you should spare someones life that didn't spare your family member or close friends. People should suffer the way they made their victims suffer to see what it feels like to know they're going to die. To feel the pain the victim went through the moment they acted on their rage of having to hurt someone. Capital punishment does not stop crime, and the death penalty is uncivilized in theory and unfair. I do not think it is right no matter what the person did to sentence them to death.

Child Development Essay -- Parenting Raising Children

Final Draft Throughout the world, it can be seen that members of different cultures raise their children in such a way that they can be productive as a responsible, mature members of society. It is the parents' responsibility to mold them into a productive individual. Parents often try to shape the child into what they believe is best for that child. Sometimes, the children's development does not conform to the ideals of other cultures. It can also be seen that gender plays a big role in the development of these children. The years in which children learn to be aggressive, or not, is prior to the age of five. I will try and associate the factors of aggressiveness and child development to portray whether or not it influences the aggressiveness of that culture. First of all, a definition of the variables to be discussed is at hand. In defining aggression, we run into problems with the cross-cultural variations between cultures. A positivist approach considers actions that cause harm to another--for example, murder or punches--to be clear examples of aggression in any cultural context. The relativist on the other hand tends to think on terms of the cultural or situational context of actions. Certain actions may not be actually aggressive but viewed in a different /way /nature/. For example, when punches are thrown in horseplay, they are restrained in their severity. Therefore, they are not aggressive in nature. When employing aggressiveness, different venues are often used in the face of social conflict. These strategies include verbal insults or physical abuse, like murder or assault. Whether or not an individual chooses to be direct or indirect/,/ depends on their preference. One may choose the direct approach and co... ...n is that they may have impossible expectations of their children. They have a tendency to live their lives through their children and push them too far. Also, the child is defiant or constantly demanding in their eyes. They have strong urges to hurt and may have acted on those urges to some extent. Conflicts arise with parents throughout life. It is important to learn to deal with these conflicts in a manner that is acceptable to the society. From the day a child is born up until puberty, a child is close with at least one if not both of the parents. Conflicts usually start during the twelve to seventeen year old period. A separation from the parents in the form of friends being more important than them promotes and is even catalytic in conflict confrontations. These confrontations range from a quiet withdrawal from the parent to raging arguments on every issue.

Poetic Diction in Shakespearean Tragedies Essay

Aristotle’s Poetics defines the nature of tragic drama, discusses the six essential elements of drama, states his opinion on the best type of tragic plot, and suggests the most effective means to arouse essential emotions such as pity and fear. He presents here the elaborate structure of justice of virtue rewarded and villain punished, broadly speaking the poetic justice. Now since in the finest kind of tragedy the structure should be complex and not simple, and since it should also be a representation of terrible and piteous events (that being the special mark of this type of imitation), in the first place, it is evident that good men ought not to be shown passing from prosperity to misfortune, for this does not inspire either pity or fear, but only revulsion; nor evil men rising from ill fortune to prosperity, for this is the most untragic plot of all—?it lacks every requirement, in that it neither elicits human sympathy nor stirs pity or fear. And again, neither should an extremely wicked man be seen falling from prosperity into misfortune, for a plot so constructed might indeed call forth human sympathy, but would not excite pity or fear, since the first is felt for a person whose misfortune is undeserved and the second for someone like ourselves—?pity for the man suffering undeservedly, fear for the man like ourselves—?and hence neither pity nor fear would be aroused in this case. We are left with the man whose place is between these extremes. Such is the man who on the one hand is not pre-eminent in virtue and justice, and yet on the other hand does not fall into misfortune through vice or depravity, but falls because of some mistake. By poetic justice means that the virtuous should be rewarded and the evil doer will be punished. It means that prosperity and adversity are distributed in proportion to the merits of the agents. Judging as such there is no poetic justice in Shakespeare’?s tragedies. Prosperity and adversity are not properly distributed in his tragedies. Such ‘poetic justice’ is in flagrant contradiction with the facts of life, and it is absent from Shakespeare’s tragic picture of life. Thus Dr. Johnson accuses that, in the plays of Shakespeare, especially in his tragedies there is a lack of poetic justice, that he sacrifices virtue to convenience, and that the major figures suffer more than they deserve because of their faults. The  punishment inflicted on them is disproportionate to their sins or wrongs. In actual life this sort of poetic justice is not possible. Shakespeare was a realist and therefore, poetic justice in its pure form is not present in his plays. In fact, Shakespeare mastered the knowledge of his time and stands out as the greatest interpreter of the ideals of Elizabethan Europe. There is no poetic justice in the deaths of Ophelia, Cordelia, Lear, Gloucestr, and Banguo. However, THERE IS POETIC JUSTICE IN THE DEATHS OF GONERIL, REGAN, ORNWALL, AND ADMUND. But the murder of lady Macduff and her children is most tragic unjust. In the same way, in hamlet, there is no poetic justice in so many deaths on stage. However, the deaths of hamlet’?s mother, his uncle, and even of Ophelia’?s father can be justified as coming under poetic justice. But the deaths of Hamlet and even of Ophelia’?s brother do not fall under poetic justice. Again King Lear illustrates in its close the conventional poetic justice that demands the triumph of the righteous cause and the downfall of the wicked. But there is not lacking that more subtle justice, so impressive in â€Å"?Lear†? because unaccompanied by the temporal reward of the good, which reveals itself in the subduing of character to what it works in. Far more terrible than the defeat and death of Macbeth is the picture of the degradation of his nature, when he appears in the scene before the battle like a beast at bay. Hamlet gears up to be a traditional bloody revenge play –? and then it stops. The bulk of the play deals not with Hamlet’?s ultimately successful vengeance on his father’?s murderer, but on Hamlet’?s inner struggle to take action. The play’?s conclusion has a typical amount of gore, but Hamlet is certainly not a typical revenge tragedy. Hamlet talks about revenge as a worthy goal, but his mysterious delay hints that he may actually feel otherwise. The validity –? or the usefulness –? of revenge itself is thrown into question by the play.

Street Children

Street Children â€Å"People don't love us,† says Tigiste, a 12 years old street girl from Addis Ababa. A small example of how these kids suffer everyday, as Tigiste, there are many kids like her all over the world. One of these countries that has a huge problem in this issue is Egypt. But who is a street kid? how can we classify these children by that name? and what is the number of them? â€Å"A street child is defined as any boy or girl for whom the street in the widest sense of the word has become his or her habitual abode and/or source of livelihood, and who is inadequately protected, supervised, or directed by responsible adults† (ESCWA).Omneya Ragab, writer in Al-Ahram weekly says, â€Å"Among the estimated tens of thousands children in street situations, 65% escape family problems, 30% are out in the streets to earn money for themselves and their families while 23% are forced to leave by family members. It is estimated that the number of these children is range d between 200,000 and 2,000,000. You can find them sleeping on pavements, standing at traffic, shining shoes, selling newspapers or notice them under bridges. The main cause of this phenomenon is poverty.Although there are not reliable studies, but it is assumed that â€Å"the percentage of those living on less than $1 a day is 3. 4 % while the percentage of those living on less than $2 a day is 42. 8 %†(ESCWA). Other causes are : violence, an old thought that a child has to work at an early age and stop education and falling preys for employers, a member in family or by their peers. Effects are clearly observed as this resulted to depending on charity, sexual abuse and continuing of a series of violence in general and illness.So, this essay will demonstrate the causes of this problem, then the effects in details and how can this problem be solved tackling some projects that are already done to face this. So as to analyze any problem we should know its cause which will lead u s to understand its effects in a better way. A life of a child is at stake, everyday these innocent kids are exposed to danger. First it comes from family, which circumstances affects them and lead to uncontrollability in actions whether from a member of a family or by any sudden unexpected event, like the one that happened at AL Dewe'a or by losing contact with the parents including death.This could result in displacement of these children were they can't find a place or shelter except under a bridge, infront of mosques or in any public place like gardens for example. Also, another cause is, the deprivation of education. Based on the Egyptian 2006 census, â€Å"the percentage of children between 6 and 18 years who never enrolled or who have dropped out of basic education was 14. 7 %, amounting to around three million children. The gross enrolment rate of children in basic, secondary and tertiary levels was 76. %†. It was found that the main causes of that is the violence the y suffer at home, school or at work; which lead afterwards that parents urge them to work only because that is more profitable and gives instant cash flows. The problem is that the child becomes fed up and start to search for the prefered environment but finds that in the street which is an exit to change their lives. Yet they suffer more violence with a constant feeling of insecurity; from older street children, abusive community members or from the police.So they are urged to submit, whether it was for an employer who could be an older street child or to the police and in both ways they will feel pain and humiliation. This can be by abuse, rape or other ways of torture. According to Human Rights Watch, police beatings are purely punitive or correctional in approach: in other words, they are used to â€Å"teach the children a lesson†! And by the street children you can find the worse as sexual violence may lead to unwanted pregnancies for girls and extreme injuries for both genders. Street Children [pic] NAME OF CANDIDATE: CENTER #: CANDIDATE #: TERITORY: JAMAICA YEAR: 2013 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM Street children in my community ? What are the factors that influence children to live on the streets? ? What are the measures that can be taken to get them into homes/places of safety? RESEARCH QUESTIONS 1. What are the factors that influence children to live on the streets? 2. What are the effects of living on the streets affects these children? 3. What are the measures that can be taken to get street children off the streets? METHOD OF INVESTIGATION The method of investigation chosen is the questionnaire.The questionnaire as chosen as a tool for collecting information because of a number of advantages they are: 1. It requires less time to be completed. 2. It is highly confidential since no name is required. 3. It can be done base on the person’s schedule. REASON FOR SELECTING AREA OF RESEARCH The area in which the research will be done is the down town area. The reason for sele cting this particular area is as a result of the high rate of street children on the streets of down town. It was observed that these children have been on the street on several occasions. I want to explore the causes and effects of their phenomena.PROCEDURES FOR DATA COLLECTION In the area of Down Town Kingston there are thousands of different streets. Some of which are more crowded with street children than others. There was a minimum of 1 street children present on these streets and a maximum of 2. In the less crowded streets of the area, 10 street children were present respectively, questionnaires were given to each. On the streets which were less crowded 6 males were present and 4 females, their ages from 10-17 years. On the street that was more crowded, 16 males and 4 females present their ages also ranged from 10-17 years.When approached and asked if they would complete the questionnaire some demanded money while others immediately agreed, no one refused. Some needed little o r no help. 30 questionnaires were issued, all of which were complete and returned immediately to the researcher who waited on them patiently. When they were finished and counted 8 females and 22 males actually completed the questionnaires. DATA ANALYSIS Street children, where is their place in society? Red Rat, a local DJ aptly describes Jamaicans view on the home of street children when he sang that they â€Å"No Live Nuh Wey†.His song also highlights the hardship experienced by children, the activities they get involved in and their aspirations. This project then, seeks to answer two main questions: 1. Why are these children living on the streets of my community? 2. What are the measures that can be taken to get street children off the streets? In order to provide a comprehensive answer to these two questions, the project will first look at the major cause of this phenomenon, urbanization. It will then look at the spatial location of street children in my community and in K ingston.The focus will then move to who they are, why they are on the streets and the activities in which they are engaged. It will also examine how effective institutions are in meeting the needs of the children. This is done in an attempt to determine whether or not there is hope for these children. This project will conclude by making suggestions on how to give hope to street children. Waugh, (2000), describes urbanization as the process by which an increasing proportion of the total population, usually of a country, lives in towns and cities. This growth is due to natural increase and to a larger extent rural-urban migration.Map 1,page 2, shows that the most densely populated parishes are in the areas of the Kingston Metropolitan Region, which includes Kingston, St. Andrew and St. Catherine, (Census 2001). Urbanization in these areas has placed stress on the available resources and has led to overcrowding, which in turn has led to several problems. These include shortages of hou ses and the development of slums/ghettos, crime and violence, unemployment and underemployment and the incidence of street people specifically, children. The stance of this project is that street children are victims of urbanization.Agnelli, 1986 confirms our stance when he wrote that the phenomenon of street children is urban in nature, as there are no rural street children. Map 2, page 3, further confirms this. [pic] [pic] The writer of this project define Street children as those children who are under the age of seventeen years who live or work on the streets as a regular daily activity. This is endorsed by Lusk et. al (1992) in an article entitled Children in need, described street children as any child for whom the street has become his or her habitual abode and /or source of livelihood, and who is inadequately protected, supervised, or directed by adults.In an interview with a social worker, the profile of a street child was outlined; he mistrust people, he enjoys his indepen dence, he tends to be rebellious, he dislikes authoritarianism or ridged control, he can be rehabilitated, he can cope under difficult circumstances and he is nomadic. The writers of this article indicated that there are three categories of street children: Children on the streets – are those who still have links with families and attend school, but work on the streets outside of school hours.Children of the streets – are those whose links with the family are remote and who consider the street to be their home. Abandoned children – are those who are completely on their own and have no links with their families. Numerous reasons have been given to explain the presence of the children on the roads. A Gleaner article of August 23, 2011 highlighted three reasons: It claimed that some children are orphaned as their parents were killed in shooting sprees in the inner city areas, some parents have migrated and have left them in the care of uncaring relatives, friends a nd older siblings.In another article found in the Sunday Gleaner on August 25, 2011, the writer quoted the former project coordinator of Wings, in saying that the boys were put out of their homes by their parents, and that some were coerced into the streets because of overcrowded homes. In another article found in the Gleaner on March 15, 2002, the writer critically stated that the children were on the streets because they were either truants from the school system or a product of dysfunctional families.From our research, we have found that a typical street child is a 12-year-old boy from a female- headed household, the average size of which is five persons, where his guardian either is unemployed or marginally employed. The responses from the questionnaire regarding the reason for their absence from school suggest that socio-economic deprivation is indeed a major factor. Some even responded sayings that they were forced peddle wares on the streets to supplement the family’s income; others were suspended or expelled from school, while there were a few who stated that there was no reason.Irregular school attendance for those who are actually enrolled into a school is a popular feature found among the street children interviewed. Many went to school only three days per week; using the remaining days of the week to perform their personal activities. For those who were absent from school only once or twice per week, Thursday and Friday were their preferred days to be absent. This they stated enabled them to go to the market to beg and or sell. Thursday is the wholesale day in the major retail market and Friday being payday, is a popular market day for workers in the urban centres.These days proved to be most profitable for these child labourers as they earn much of their money transporting goods for the shoppers. Based on the responses of the children from the questionnaire, it is possible to assess and determine the main â€Å"push factors† which ha s inevitably resulted in them being on the street. FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO THE INCREASING NUMBER OF STREET CHILDREN 11% 30%State 19% 33% Parents Abusers Peers 7%Severe Poverty Push Factors a) The state – Overcrowding of the educational or childcare system is the primary cause for movement of the children from the institutions provided.The state neglects their responsibilities by not adequately funding these institutions. The signs were evident in the inner city schools visited where the teacher – pupil ratio is about 1:60. In addition, the lack of desk and chairs, stationery and other vital equipment causes discomfort for the students and teachers. b) The consequences of the actions of parents such as neglect, migration or directly sending their children out on the streets, forces them to fend for themselves hence causing child labour. ) Physical, sexual or emotional abuse, caused by parents or guardians usually leads to the child running away from home and thereby bei ng forced into child labour d) Peer pressure –The feeling of inadequacy at school discourages then from wanting to learn, especially if they are being teased and ridiculed and hence they are push into child labour. e) Severe poverty – The children are forced unto the streets to supplement the inadequate income of the household, often following the laying off from work of the primary caregiver. ) Those who enter into child labour primarily of their own volition, in order to help out their parents or to become more independent themselves; and g) Those entering as a direct result of family crisis like the illness or death of the primary caregiver. Pull Factors A. â€Å"Pop Culture† influences children, in that it dictates the clothing and styles to be worn in order for them to be considered fashionable. When children of a poor socio economic background see their friends in the latest fashions, living a carefree life without any responsibilities this entices them to want to follow this trend.However due to their poor financial circumstances they are unable to afford these trends, hence leading them to go out and fend or work for themselves in an attempt to afford these styles. B. In a paper published by David Dunkley’s on February 11, 1999, Turf wars were cited as one of the reasons for boys not returning home at nights. From having spoken to street children ourselves, we saw that this was in fact one of the reasons many felt they could not return home at nights and so remained on the streets, as they feared for their lives.Others received money, protection and the needed support from the â€Å"don† (local area leader), who used them as carriers for their illicit wares. On interviewing these children, we also realized that a few of them had behavioral problems. It was found that the children, who exhibited extreme forms of behavioral problems, were from larger families with one or no parent and were the ones who were particularly into sporadic school attendance. They were the ones who were also from depressed communities where overcrowding was a problem and living conditions were poor.During our research, a child highlighted some of his reason for being on the streets. He reported that he lived in a single room house with his mother and other siblings and was forced to leave the house when his mother was â€Å"entertaining†. Another child, who resided with his grandparent, complained that he could not live with her because she was miserable and demanding. Hence he avoided going home as he disliked the living conditions and is thereby a street child. In our survey, 92% of the children were boys and they were involved in a number of activities: they pushed carts, they carried people’s luggage.They sold items for others, they bought and sold items, some went to sea and some were there just to check their â€Å"brethren†. One little boy in particular said that when he is on the street he â €Å"run up an’ down†. Not surprisingly though is the fact that the majority are involved in one or another economic activity. In fact 75% admitted to be so involved. These activities, according to these children yield great returns. In 1986 children were making a maximum of $21. 00 per day, now 75% of them made over $1000. 00 per day. One child stated that he made over $1,800. 0 per day. Seventeen percent of them were reluctant to reveal their daily earnings or simply did not know. If these figures are truly representative of what a child makes on the street, it is no wonder that they are willing to remain there regardless of the harsh treatment, which is meted out to them by the general public. It is evident that the economic pull to street life is greater now than in the 1980s and 1990s. Hence this remains a major factor for children being on the streets. When we question, â€Å"Why are these children living on the streets in my community? there are many reasons and excuses. Many are in search of love and acceptance; others see it as a means of survival or an outlet. The real question however is, â€Å"Is there hope for these children? † In answering the question, is there hope for these children, one would be tempted to give a resounding yes. But can this be justified? The plight of the street children has not been ignored by the Jamaican Government, Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) and International organizations. In fact, programmes have been put in place to alleviate problems of child labour in Kingston.These include RISE Life Management who plays a great role in my community, Children First, Hope for Children, The Possibility Programme, St. Andrew Care Centre, the National Initiative for Street Children (NISC), Tackle Child Labour by the International Labour Organization and the Socialization Project by the Kingston Restoration Company. Mainly the United Children Educational Foundation (UNICEF) funds many of these programmes. All of the named institutions have been established to alleviate problems of child labor and neglected children in the metropolitan area.Most of these institutions aim at giving these children institution Management provides counseling, classes and youth programs for street children in my community. Children First aims at reintroducing them into the formal school system. It reunites them with their families and monitors their attendance in the government schools. Map 3 shows their specific location in Kingston, and proximity to my community the main study area. The residence of the street children are located in mostly densely populated homes where the standard of living is low and living conditions harsh.Many of the institutions that are put in place to help them are located within the community or close by. [pic] In these institutions, a number of activities are planned for the children, some outside the classroom. All the organizations have regular school activities inclusive of Mathematics, English, Reading, Social Studies, Science, and Computing. At Children First there is a thematic teaching system in which themes are chosen by the students, for example, â€Å"Children Rights†. They also offer skills training programs such as cosmetology, barbering and photography. At NISC,Children First for example, has aided a number of students to attend universities both local and international. For example, there is a student studying medicine in Cuba, and one, at The Edna Manley School Of Art is studying to become an actor. Two-thirds of the staff is graduates of the program. Mrs. Pious, executive director of Children First has found that in order to improve the lives of the children, it is often necessary to improve the lives of the parents or guardians as well. As a result, the program has enabled many parents to start small businesses such as chicken rearing, ewing and goat rearing. At Hope for Children, students have been involved in drama. A few of thei r past productions include â€Å"Come Listen to We†, â€Å"Wicked Reality† and â€Å"Man, Woman and Child†. The street children in my community seemed very ambitious and their occupational aspirations were wide and varied. Figure 2 shows the career choice of the street children. DESIRED OCCUPATION OF THE STREET CHILDREN 10 8 6 4 2 0 OCCUPATIONS What is noticeable is that only the needs of the carpenter and the fisherman and to a lesser extent that of a truck driver are catered to by these institution.The implication of this is that if they boys are taken off the street and placed in any of these institutions, their aspirations would not be met. The formal educational institutions however could meet their goals, but they have to, to a large extent turn their backs on these institutions. One still have to wonder, is there hope for these children? What is heartening is that the children, although they were on the street, thought that education was important and tha t it was the only way for them to achieve their goals. In fact, 83% of them believe that education is important in their acquiring their career goals.It is often times said that where there is a will there is a way. Even though many of the children have the desire to attain upper socio-economic mobility, they were often times forced to attend these institutions. When the Administrators were asked about the institutionalization of the children, they indicated that few children came in voluntarily. In fact, Most of the children were sent there by parents, concerned citizens and police officers. Overall, having been forced to attend has caused them to be defiant and hostile to the programme.At Children First most of the children attend voluntarily and hence their level of success is greater. We also found from our interview that 6% of the children did not even know where the institutions were located or even that they existed. Overall, from my observation, the programmes I have studied have shown a level of success. But in light of the negative aspects, which we have observed, I recommend the following: 1. A public education programme on radio and television, which highlights why contributions should be given directly to the programmes in place instead of the children. . Implementing more self-help schemes for the parents or guardians of the street children, that is, helping them to generate a steady income. 3. Government should make the needs of street children one of its priorities. More money should be allocated to these programmes to effect changes. 4. Make the public aware of the plight of our nation’s future through the introduction of a Street Children Day in Child month and Media coverage (when people become aware, they will become sympathetic and generous). DATA COLLECTION INSTRUMENT Sample of Questionnaire 1. Gender Tick (/)Male ( )Female ( ) 2. Age 10-11 years ( )12-13 years ( )14-15 years ( )16-17 years ( ) 3. How long have you been on the stre ets? 6 months-1 year ( )2-3 years ( )4-5 years ( )6 years and over ( ) 4. When you were at home, what type of family did you live in? Single ( )Nuclear ( )Extended ( ) Other ( ) 5. Do you plan on returning home? Yes ( ) No ( ) 6. Do you like living on the street? Yes ( ) No ( ) 7. What are some of the factors that are responsible for you becoming a street child? Abandoned by parents ( )Disruptive behaviors/can’t be controlled ( )Ran away from home ( )Other ( ) 8. What was the main punishment received at home? Beating/Flogging ( )Indecent language ( )Being put to starve ( ) Other ( ) 9. What type of relationship do you have with your family now that you are on the streets? Excellent ( )Poor ( ) Fair ( ) None ( ) 10. Do you think its better being on the streets that at home? Yes ( ) No ( ) If yes why? ______________________________________________________________ 11. How do you provide for yourself on the streets? Begging ( )Stealing ( )Searching household garbage ( ) 12. Do yo u ever wish you never left home?Yes ( )No ( ) 13. How does being a street child affect you emotionally? ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ 14. How does being a street child affect your physical appearance? ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ 15. Were you in school? Yes ( )No ( ) 16. If yes what grade/form where you in? 17. Are you able to read and write? Yes ( )No ( ) 18.What are the measures that can be taken to get street children off the streets? Put them in state homes ( ) Have counseling sessions with them and put them up for adoption ( ) Establish laws to punish parents who contribute to their child being on the streets ( ) 19. Do you think the measures will work for you? Yes ( ) No ( ) Maybe ( ) 20. What can persons who wish to become parents do to avoid chil dren leaving home to live on the streets? Attend parenting sessions on how to care for the child ( ) Talk to the child/children to find out what is bothering them ( )Get involved in activities at the child school to see how well they are doing () BIBLIOGRAPHY Agnelli (1986), Street Children- A growing urban tragedy -Report for the Independent Commission on International Humanitarian Issues Boyce-Reid, k. (1993) A Report on Street Children Projects http://gvnet. com/streetchildren/Jamaica. htm David Dunkley(1999) :Street Children- effects of urbanization ———————– School Based Assessment on Street Children in my community FISHERMAN FIRE MAN CARPENTER PERCENTAGES DOCTOR BUSINESS MAN TEACHER TRUCK DRIVER BANK CLERK Stall Cart Street Children [pic] NAME OF CANDIDATE: CENTER #: CANDIDATE #: TERITORY: JAMAICA YEAR: 2013 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM Street children in my community ? What are the factors that influence children to live on the streets? ? What are the measures that can be taken to get them into homes/places of safety? RESEARCH QUESTIONS 1. What are the factors that influence children to live on the streets? 2. What are the effects of living on the streets affects these children? 3. What are the measures that can be taken to get street children off the streets? METHOD OF INVESTIGATION The method of investigation chosen is the questionnaire.The questionnaire as chosen as a tool for collecting information because of a number of advantages they are: 1. It requires less time to be completed. 2. It is highly confidential since no name is required. 3. It can be done base on the person’s schedule. REASON FOR SELECTING AREA OF RESEARCH The area in which the research will be done is the down town area. The reason for sele cting this particular area is as a result of the high rate of street children on the streets of down town. It was observed that these children have been on the street on several occasions. I want to explore the causes and effects of their phenomena.PROCEDURES FOR DATA COLLECTION In the area of Down Town Kingston there are thousands of different streets. Some of which are more crowded with street children than others. There was a minimum of 1 street children present on these streets and a maximum of 2. In the less crowded streets of the area, 10 street children were present respectively, questionnaires were given to each. On the streets which were less crowded 6 males were present and 4 females, their ages from 10-17 years. On the street that was more crowded, 16 males and 4 females present their ages also ranged from 10-17 years.When approached and asked if they would complete the questionnaire some demanded money while others immediately agreed, no one refused. Some needed little o r no help. 30 questionnaires were issued, all of which were complete and returned immediately to the researcher who waited on them patiently. When they were finished and counted 8 females and 22 males actually completed the questionnaires. DATA ANALYSIS Street children, where is their place in society? Red Rat, a local DJ aptly describes Jamaicans view on the home of street children when he sang that they â€Å"No Live Nuh Wey†.His song also highlights the hardship experienced by children, the activities they get involved in and their aspirations. This project then, seeks to answer two main questions: 1. Why are these children living on the streets of my community? 2. What are the measures that can be taken to get street children off the streets? In order to provide a comprehensive answer to these two questions, the project will first look at the major cause of this phenomenon, urbanization. It will then look at the spatial location of street children in my community and in K ingston.The focus will then move to who they are, why they are on the streets and the activities in which they are engaged. It will also examine how effective institutions are in meeting the needs of the children. This is done in an attempt to determine whether or not there is hope for these children. This project will conclude by making suggestions on how to give hope to street children. Waugh, (2000), describes urbanization as the process by which an increasing proportion of the total population, usually of a country, lives in towns and cities. This growth is due to natural increase and to a larger extent rural-urban migration.Map 1,page 2, shows that the most densely populated parishes are in the areas of the Kingston Metropolitan Region, which includes Kingston, St. Andrew and St. Catherine, (Census 2001). Urbanization in these areas has placed stress on the available resources and has led to overcrowding, which in turn has led to several problems. These include shortages of hou ses and the development of slums/ghettos, crime and violence, unemployment and underemployment and the incidence of street people specifically, children. The stance of this project is that street children are victims of urbanization.Agnelli, 1986 confirms our stance when he wrote that the phenomenon of street children is urban in nature, as there are no rural street children. Map 2, page 3, further confirms this. [pic] [pic] The writer of this project define Street children as those children who are under the age of seventeen years who live or work on the streets as a regular daily activity. This is endorsed by Lusk et. al (1992) in an article entitled Children in need, described street children as any child for whom the street has become his or her habitual abode and /or source of livelihood, and who is inadequately protected, supervised, or directed by adults.In an interview with a social worker, the profile of a street child was outlined; he mistrust people, he enjoys his indepen dence, he tends to be rebellious, he dislikes authoritarianism or ridged control, he can be rehabilitated, he can cope under difficult circumstances and he is nomadic. The writers of this article indicated that there are three categories of street children: Children on the streets – are those who still have links with families and attend school, but work on the streets outside of school hours.Children of the streets – are those whose links with the family are remote and who consider the street to be their home. Abandoned children – are those who are completely on their own and have no links with their families. Numerous reasons have been given to explain the presence of the children on the roads. A Gleaner article of August 23, 2011 highlighted three reasons: It claimed that some children are orphaned as their parents were killed in shooting sprees in the inner city areas, some parents have migrated and have left them in the care of uncaring relatives, friends a nd older siblings.In another article found in the Sunday Gleaner on August 25, 2011, the writer quoted the former project coordinator of Wings, in saying that the boys were put out of their homes by their parents, and that some were coerced into the streets because of overcrowded homes. In another article found in the Gleaner on March 15, 2002, the writer critically stated that the children were on the streets because they were either truants from the school system or a product of dysfunctional families.From our research, we have found that a typical street child is a 12-year-old boy from a female- headed household, the average size of which is five persons, where his guardian either is unemployed or marginally employed. The responses from the questionnaire regarding the reason for their absence from school suggest that socio-economic deprivation is indeed a major factor. Some even responded sayings that they were forced peddle wares on the streets to supplement the family’s income; others were suspended or expelled from school, while there were a few who stated that there was no reason.Irregular school attendance for those who are actually enrolled into a school is a popular feature found among the street children interviewed. Many went to school only three days per week; using the remaining days of the week to perform their personal activities. For those who were absent from school only once or twice per week, Thursday and Friday were their preferred days to be absent. This they stated enabled them to go to the market to beg and or sell. Thursday is the wholesale day in the major retail market and Friday being payday, is a popular market day for workers in the urban centres.These days proved to be most profitable for these child labourers as they earn much of their money transporting goods for the shoppers. Based on the responses of the children from the questionnaire, it is possible to assess and determine the main â€Å"push factors† which ha s inevitably resulted in them being on the street. FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO THE INCREASING NUMBER OF STREET CHILDREN 11% 30%State 19% 33% Parents Abusers Peers 7%Severe Poverty Push Factors a) The state – Overcrowding of the educational or childcare system is the primary cause for movement of the children from the institutions provided.The state neglects their responsibilities by not adequately funding these institutions. The signs were evident in the inner city schools visited where the teacher – pupil ratio is about 1:60. In addition, the lack of desk and chairs, stationery and other vital equipment causes discomfort for the students and teachers. b) The consequences of the actions of parents such as neglect, migration or directly sending their children out on the streets, forces them to fend for themselves hence causing child labour. ) Physical, sexual or emotional abuse, caused by parents or guardians usually leads to the child running away from home and thereby bei ng forced into child labour d) Peer pressure –The feeling of inadequacy at school discourages then from wanting to learn, especially if they are being teased and ridiculed and hence they are push into child labour. e) Severe poverty – The children are forced unto the streets to supplement the inadequate income of the household, often following the laying off from work of the primary caregiver. ) Those who enter into child labour primarily of their own volition, in order to help out their parents or to become more independent themselves; and g) Those entering as a direct result of family crisis like the illness or death of the primary caregiver. Pull Factors A. â€Å"Pop Culture† influences children, in that it dictates the clothing and styles to be worn in order for them to be considered fashionable. When children of a poor socio economic background see their friends in the latest fashions, living a carefree life without any responsibilities this entices them to want to follow this trend.However due to their poor financial circumstances they are unable to afford these trends, hence leading them to go out and fend or work for themselves in an attempt to afford these styles. B. In a paper published by David Dunkley’s on February 11, 1999, Turf wars were cited as one of the reasons for boys not returning home at nights. From having spoken to street children ourselves, we saw that this was in fact one of the reasons many felt they could not return home at nights and so remained on the streets, as they feared for their lives.Others received money, protection and the needed support from the â€Å"don† (local area leader), who used them as carriers for their illicit wares. On interviewing these children, we also realized that a few of them had behavioral problems. It was found that the children, who exhibited extreme forms of behavioral problems, were from larger families with one or no parent and were the ones who were particularly into sporadic school attendance. They were the ones who were also from depressed communities where overcrowding was a problem and living conditions were poor.During our research, a child highlighted some of his reason for being on the streets. He reported that he lived in a single room house with his mother and other siblings and was forced to leave the house when his mother was â€Å"entertaining†. Another child, who resided with his grandparent, complained that he could not live with her because she was miserable and demanding. Hence he avoided going home as he disliked the living conditions and is thereby a street child. In our survey, 92% of the children were boys and they were involved in a number of activities: they pushed carts, they carried people’s luggage.They sold items for others, they bought and sold items, some went to sea and some were there just to check their â€Å"brethren†. One little boy in particular said that when he is on the street he â €Å"run up an’ down†. Not surprisingly though is the fact that the majority are involved in one or another economic activity. In fact 75% admitted to be so involved. These activities, according to these children yield great returns. In 1986 children were making a maximum of $21. 00 per day, now 75% of them made over $1000. 00 per day. One child stated that he made over $1,800. 0 per day. Seventeen percent of them were reluctant to reveal their daily earnings or simply did not know. If these figures are truly representative of what a child makes on the street, it is no wonder that they are willing to remain there regardless of the harsh treatment, which is meted out to them by the general public. It is evident that the economic pull to street life is greater now than in the 1980s and 1990s. Hence this remains a major factor for children being on the streets. When we question, â€Å"Why are these children living on the streets in my community? there are many reasons and excuses. Many are in search of love and acceptance; others see it as a means of survival or an outlet. The real question however is, â€Å"Is there hope for these children? † In answering the question, is there hope for these children, one would be tempted to give a resounding yes. But can this be justified? The plight of the street children has not been ignored by the Jamaican Government, Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) and International organizations. In fact, programmes have been put in place to alleviate problems of child labour in Kingston.These include RISE Life Management who plays a great role in my community, Children First, Hope for Children, The Possibility Programme, St. Andrew Care Centre, the National Initiative for Street Children (NISC), Tackle Child Labour by the International Labour Organization and the Socialization Project by the Kingston Restoration Company. Mainly the United Children Educational Foundation (UNICEF) funds many of these programmes. All of the named institutions have been established to alleviate problems of child labor and neglected children in the metropolitan area.Most of these institutions aim at giving these children institution Management provides counseling, classes and youth programs for street children in my community. Children First aims at reintroducing them into the formal school system. It reunites them with their families and monitors their attendance in the government schools. Map 3 shows their specific location in Kingston, and proximity to my community the main study area. The residence of the street children are located in mostly densely populated homes where the standard of living is low and living conditions harsh.Many of the institutions that are put in place to help them are located within the community or close by. [pic] In these institutions, a number of activities are planned for the children, some outside the classroom. All the organizations have regular school activities inclusive of Mathematics, English, Reading, Social Studies, Science, and Computing. At Children First there is a thematic teaching system in which themes are chosen by the students, for example, â€Å"Children Rights†. They also offer skills training programs such as cosmetology, barbering and photography. At NISC,Children First for example, has aided a number of students to attend universities both local and international. For example, there is a student studying medicine in Cuba, and one, at The Edna Manley School Of Art is studying to become an actor. Two-thirds of the staff is graduates of the program. Mrs. Pious, executive director of Children First has found that in order to improve the lives of the children, it is often necessary to improve the lives of the parents or guardians as well. As a result, the program has enabled many parents to start small businesses such as chicken rearing, ewing and goat rearing. At Hope for Children, students have been involved in drama. A few of thei r past productions include â€Å"Come Listen to We†, â€Å"Wicked Reality† and â€Å"Man, Woman and Child†. The street children in my community seemed very ambitious and their occupational aspirations were wide and varied. Figure 2 shows the career choice of the street children. DESIRED OCCUPATION OF THE STREET CHILDREN 10 8 6 4 2 0 OCCUPATIONS What is noticeable is that only the needs of the carpenter and the fisherman and to a lesser extent that of a truck driver are catered to by these institution.The implication of this is that if they boys are taken off the street and placed in any of these institutions, their aspirations would not be met. The formal educational institutions however could meet their goals, but they have to, to a large extent turn their backs on these institutions. One still have to wonder, is there hope for these children? What is heartening is that the children, although they were on the street, thought that education was important and tha t it was the only way for them to achieve their goals. In fact, 83% of them believe that education is important in their acquiring their career goals.It is often times said that where there is a will there is a way. Even though many of the children have the desire to attain upper socio-economic mobility, they were often times forced to attend these institutions. When the Administrators were asked about the institutionalization of the children, they indicated that few children came in voluntarily. In fact, Most of the children were sent there by parents, concerned citizens and police officers. Overall, having been forced to attend has caused them to be defiant and hostile to the programme.At Children First most of the children attend voluntarily and hence their level of success is greater. We also found from our interview that 6% of the children did not even know where the institutions were located or even that they existed. Overall, from my observation, the programmes I have studied have shown a level of success. But in light of the negative aspects, which we have observed, I recommend the following: 1. A public education programme on radio and television, which highlights why contributions should be given directly to the programmes in place instead of the children. . Implementing more self-help schemes for the parents or guardians of the street children, that is, helping them to generate a steady income. 3. Government should make the needs of street children one of its priorities. More money should be allocated to these programmes to effect changes. 4. Make the public aware of the plight of our nation’s future through the introduction of a Street Children Day in Child month and Media coverage (when people become aware, they will become sympathetic and generous). DATA COLLECTION INSTRUMENT Sample of Questionnaire 1. Gender Tick (/)Male ( )Female ( ) 2. Age 10-11 years ( )12-13 years ( )14-15 years ( )16-17 years ( ) 3. How long have you been on the stre ets? 6 months-1 year ( )2-3 years ( )4-5 years ( )6 years and over ( ) 4. When you were at home, what type of family did you live in? Single ( )Nuclear ( )Extended ( ) Other ( ) 5. Do you plan on returning home? Yes ( ) No ( ) 6. Do you like living on the street? Yes ( ) No ( ) 7. What are some of the factors that are responsible for you becoming a street child? Abandoned by parents ( )Disruptive behaviors/can’t be controlled ( )Ran away from home ( )Other ( ) 8. What was the main punishment received at home? Beating/Flogging ( )Indecent language ( )Being put to starve ( ) Other ( ) 9. What type of relationship do you have with your family now that you are on the streets? Excellent ( )Poor ( ) Fair ( ) None ( ) 10. Do you think its better being on the streets that at home? Yes ( ) No ( ) If yes why? ______________________________________________________________ 11. How do you provide for yourself on the streets? Begging ( )Stealing ( )Searching household garbage ( ) 12. Do yo u ever wish you never left home?Yes ( )No ( ) 13. How does being a street child affect you emotionally? ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ 14. How does being a street child affect your physical appearance? ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ 15. Were you in school? Yes ( )No ( ) 16. If yes what grade/form where you in? 17. Are you able to read and write? Yes ( )No ( ) 18.What are the measures that can be taken to get street children off the streets? Put them in state homes ( ) Have counseling sessions with them and put them up for adoption ( ) Establish laws to punish parents who contribute to their child being on the streets ( ) 19. Do you think the measures will work for you? Yes ( ) No ( ) Maybe ( ) 20. What can persons who wish to become parents do to avoid chil dren leaving home to live on the streets? Attend parenting sessions on how to care for the child ( ) Talk to the child/children to find out what is bothering them ( )Get involved in activities at the child school to see how well they are doing () BIBLIOGRAPHY Agnelli (1986), Street Children- A growing urban tragedy -Report for the Independent Commission on International Humanitarian Issues Boyce-Reid, k. (1993) A Report on Street Children Projects http://gvnet. com/streetchildren/Jamaica. htm David Dunkley(1999) :Street Children- effects of urbanization ———————– School Based Assessment on Street Children in my community FISHERMAN FIRE MAN CARPENTER PERCENTAGES DOCTOR BUSINESS MAN TEACHER TRUCK DRIVER BANK CLERK Stall Cart